Latest changes

- Template pdf: finetune for rendering non-print style
- Set correct order for chapters

.gitignore

@@ -1,2 +1,3 @@
 build/
 *.log
+*.DS_Store

Makefile

@@ -41,6 +41,7 @@ DOCX_ARGS = --standalone --reference-doc templates/docx.docx
 EPUB_ARGS = --template templates/epub.html --epub-cover-image $(COVER_IMAGE)
 HTML_ARGS = --template templates/html.html --standalone --to html5
 PDF_ARGS = --template templates/pdf.latex --pdf-engine xelatex
+TEX_ARGS = --template templates/pdf.latex --pdf-engine xelatex
 
 # Per-format file dependencies
 
@@ -49,6 +50,7 @@ DOCX_DEPENDENCIES = $(BASE_DEPENDENCIES)
 EPUB_DEPENDENCIES = $(BASE_DEPENDENCIES)
 HTML_DEPENDENCIES = $(BASE_DEPENDENCIES)
 PDF_DEPENDENCIES = $(BASE_DEPENDENCIES)
+TEX_DEPENDENCIES = $(BASE_DEPENDENCIES)
 
 ####################################################################################################
 # Basic actions
@@ -77,6 +79,9 @@ html:	$(BUILD)/html/$(OUTPUT_FILENAME).html
 .PHONY: pdf
 pdf:	$(BUILD)/pdf/$(OUTPUT_FILENAME).pdf
 
+.PHONY: tex 
+tex:	$(BUILD)/tex/$(OUTPUT_FILENAME).tex
+
 .PHONY: docx
 docx:	$(BUILD)/docx/$(OUTPUT_FILENAME).docx
 
@@ -96,6 +101,11 @@ $(BUILD)/pdf/$(OUTPUT_FILENAME).pdf:	$(PDF_DEPENDENCIES)
 	$(CONTENT) | $(CONTENT_FILTERS) | $(PANDOC_COMMAND) $(ARGS) $(PDF_ARGS) -o $@
 	@echo "$@ was built"
 
+$(BUILD)/tex/$(OUTPUT_FILENAME).tex:	$(TEX_DEPENDENCIES)
+	mkdir -p $(BUILD)/tex
+	$(CONTENT) | $(CONTENT_FILTERS) | $(PANDOC_COMMAND) $(ARGS) $(TEX_ARGS) -o $@
+	@echo "$@ was built"
+
 $(BUILD)/docx/$(OUTPUT_FILENAME).docx:	$(DOCX_DEPENDENCIES)
 	mkdir -p $(BUILD)/docx
 	$(CONTENT) | $(CONTENT_FILTERS) | $(PANDOC_COMMAND) $(ARGS) $(DOCX_ARGS) -o $@

NOTES.md

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+- <https://matthewsetter.com/technical-documentation/asciidoc/convert-markdown-to-asciidoc-with-kramdoc/>
+
+
+Tip:
+
+Just dip one end of your fuse in some relatively thick NC lacquer. This will prevent the sulfur from leaking out of the fuse.

README.md

@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
-# Pyrotechnics Revived eBook 
-
+# 21st century Pyrotechny
+ 
 Pyrotechics information preservation project in eBook format

chapters/10-0-history-of-fireworks.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+**Fireworks** are types of pyrotechnic devices that are used for entertainment. Usually Fireworks are used for celebrations, New Year and other big and small occasions.
+
+Fireworks are known since around 1400 in Europe. Black powder came to Europe around 1250. The tradition says that Black Powder came from China where it was discovered earlier. According to one version it was Li Tian, who had been named to Zhusheng (the sound of bamboo). He was borne in Dayao, Liuyang in Hunan province, the 18th of april the year 601, under the emperor Renshou and died in the age of 89 years in the year 690. His tomb is in Beidahe in the old Dayao (outside Liuyang, Hunan). In China crackers and fireworks are still used to scare away evil spirits in many occasions as funerals, weddings, openings of shops and for festivals.
+
+Probably the techniques were spread with travellers and merchants to Europe. The Europeans developed the use of black powder and fireworks further. Today the largest production sites of fireworks are in China, but many other countries as Italy, Spain, India and others have their own production of smaller quantities. Japan has a unique tradition in fireworks ("hanabi", which means flowers of fire).
+
+Some milestones:
+
+* 1044 Chinese formulas for gunpowder
+* 1267 Earliest references to gunpowder in Europe. (Roger Bacon)
+* 1300 (around) First formulas emerged
+* 1326 City of Florence planned to buy "canones de metallo" and ammunition
+* 1331 First recorded military use at Cividale ( north of Trieste, Italy )
+* 1338 A Ribaudequin and 48 bolts where used to attac and burn Southampton
+* 1346 Battle of Crécy where Guns where used
+* 1540 Pirotechnia by Biringuccio is published in Italy. He describes roman candles, girandoles, crackers and rockets.He also tells that the Pope at celebrations in Rome uses fireworks since many years.
+* 1605 November 5, Guy Fawkes tries to blow up the Parliament with 3600 pounds of gunpowder
+* 1845 Christian Friedrich Schönbein discovers nitrated cellulose ( nitrocellulose, guncotton )
+* 1845 Ascanio Sobrero discovers nitrated glycerin ( nitroglycerin )
+* 1864 Alfred Nobel patented his blasting cap
+* 1867 Alfred Nobel patented dynamite

chapters/10-1-autobiography-of-dr-takeo-shimizo.md

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+Autobiography of Pyrotechnist Dr. Takeo Shimizu
+Published in: New Hampshire Pyrotechnic Association, Inc. Newsletter March 1991 Volume 3, Number 3
+
+I was born in 1912 in the small village of Takamata in Yamaguchi Prefecture which is in the middle part of Japan. My father was a farmer. After I finished primary school I then studied at a middle school in Hagi, a famous town which produced a number of loyalists of the Restoration Period of Meiji, Shoin Yoshida and Shinsaku Takasugi, etc. Hagi faced the Japan Sea and I could hear the sound of the rough sea while I lay in bed at the dormitory of the school on quiet nights.
+
+At school I studied English for the first time. My teacher, T. Ito, had a great respect for English gentlemen. While I was in the fourth year class an accident happened to me. I was severely scalded by him and with that I did not do my English homework. I then became slow with the progress of my English. Many of the school boys dreamed of becoming military or naval officers to perform our duty for our country. I passed the famous severe entrance examination of the Military Academy, although I was not so tough but rather delicate.
+
+The Military Academy was divided in two courses. The preparatory course of two years and the regular or one year and ten months. Between the two there was a duty in a regiment for six months. The preparatory course was for liberal arts and the regular was for military affairs. The students were divided into small learning groups of about thirty people.
+
+Soon after I entered the preparatory course, the teacher read my paper as a superior style in a lesson of composition. I was very much delighted, however, such a case never came again in all my life at the Academy. I only once won at Judo with my friend, Mr. Kondo, who looked much tougher than me, however, I never won in competitions or games in all other cases. Therefore, even at present I have no passion for games of chance. After the preparatory course I arrived at the Saseho Heavy Artillery Regiment in Nagasaki-ken. There I met Lieutenant K. Egucbi and other young officers. They were men of great diligence and would read books of tactics even on their horses. They did not like to spend time on worthless matters. After the duty of hard training I was certainly changed into a more diligent young man when I returned to the Academy to study further in the regular course.
+
+All of the students, called cadets, wore a uniform with shoulder-straps of sergeant and the gorget patches with numbers of regiment. They also seemed changed from the idle students in the preparatory course. I liked the regular course because I was not bothered by mathematics, and physics, etc. I was good in the lessons of tactics, weapons, and surveying. In July 1933 I came down from the Academy at Ichigaya Hill with a diploma.
+
+I started again for my post with the Saseho Heavy Artillery Regiment and in November I was commissioned a sub-lieutenant. Young officers in the regiment were trained with cannon firing. When the black smoke from a shell was found before the target, we had to increase the range of the next shell so that it would fall behind the target. It might seem easy, but for me it was very difficult because I would suddenly forget the position of the black smoke. I was very disappointed and thought I might not be suitable as a company commander on a battlefield. I decided to change the direction of my future life and began the hard study of mathematics, physics, and chemistry in spare moments from my duty.
+
+In November 1934 all officers of Artillery and Engineers of my contemporary came back from the regiments and entered the Military Artillery and Engineer Academy. We were taught mathematics, physics, chemistry, metallurgy, electrical engineering, and ballistics, etc. So many things were stuffed into our heads by the cramming system of the Academy. After the regular course of one year and the higher course of one year I was selected to learn more at Tokyo University.
+
+In April 1937 I entered the School of Explosives at Tokyo University. In my class five other students from regular high schools gathered. Professor Nishimatsu, who was the highest authority of the day on manufacturing explosives, was chief. Professor Dr. N. Yamaga, who was a rear admiral in the Navy, lectured on interior ballistics. Assistant Professor S. Yamamoto lectured on manufacturing explosives. Their speaking was terrible and the students suffered to note their lectures.
+
+I felt most of the lectures in the School of Explosives were not of much interest. Therefore, I often visited the School of Chemistry, where Assistant Dr. Morino was studying the Raman Effect. I learned quantum mechanics with the help of Professor Dr. K. Higashi, who was an authority in the chemical structure of molecules. Dr. Higashi gave me a book, "FUYU NO HANA" which means "WINTER FLOWERS" in English, by Professor Nakaya (1902-1962). It gave me a deep impression that I knew how to do experiments without any noble instruments of high cost, but using only the human head with excellent success. I named such a method "Terada's Style". The late Dr. Terada (1875-1935) was a famous professor in the Faculty of Physics in Tokyo University. Dr. Nakaya was student under Dr. Terada and had most faithfully succeeded Terada's school. Although I had no personal acquaintance with Dr. Nakaya nor Dr. Terada, I decided to succeed Terada's school in my future life. Therefore I thank Dr. Higashi who gave me such a direction until today.
+
+In April 1940 I graduated from Tokyo University and arrived at my post at Ohji Factory of Explosives of the Tokyo Second Military Ordnance. I worked there as the section chief of manufacturing nitric and sulfuric acids. There stood a nitric acid plant producing twenty tons per day. Large absorption towers of 18-8 nickel-chrome steel were in use at that time. There were other sections for manufacturing TNT, picric acid, nitrocellulose, and tetryl and about a thousand people worked at the factory. I learned the controlling method of a chemical plant which moves continuously in the day and night with few people.
+
+Lieutenant Abe and Mr. Kojima who had a special sense on chemical plants helped me. Thus I started with this very interesting work as a chemical engineer. I feel it was the most happy days of my life.
+
+After the daytime duty in the factory was over I studied in my home at Saginomiya in the western part of Tokyo, I read papers of philosophy by professors Dr. Nishida and Dr. Tanabe of Kyoto University. They founded what was called the "Kyoto School". I learned the dialectics. I also learned Buddhism and the Old and New Testaments by translations in Japanese. I intended further to read them in originals and began to study Sanskrit, Pali, Hebrew, and Greek. I thought the principle of Buddism might be:
+
+"All things change with time and go in the worse direction when making no human effort".
+
+In 1941 World War II broke out. I was in the ballistic section of the Institute of Explosives of the Second Tokyo Ordnance. All the officers in the ordnance felt uneasy because Japan was already fatigued by the long war in China. However, our works proceeded with no confusion. Everyone knew that battle is very foolish work for human beings, which are not different from animals. Men made many inventions in the war, however, there had been no invention which decreased the pain in their lives.
+
+In 1942 I had an additional post, as teacher at the Artillery and Engineer Academy, where I gave lectures on interior ballistics to the young officers in the higher course. My students returned from the battlefields. I completely rewrote the text-book which had been a direct translation from a French one. I discovered a similarity rule to obtain velocity, pressure, and time, as functions of four parameters. When the war was over in 1945 I was a lieutenant colonel and the leader of the ballistic section of the Institute of Explosives. My military life was over with the defeat of Japan.
+
+I had lost my spirit to survive, however, I had to live to support my wife and two children. I decided not to make explosives any more and selected to live in my birthplace, the village of Takamata. My parents were already dead and my junior brother was killed in battle in the Philippines. Few relatives supported me. I bought farm fields of two and a half acres from which I could obtain rice and vegetables for one years living. I built a small house of my own, a shack, without any help of a carpenter.
+
+The house faced the south. There was a hill of Japanese Cedar behind the house. After a walk of ten minutes going up through cedars I would see a vast wild field. Before my house there were rice fields and eleven houses. The village was surrounded by copse hills through which a road and a stream passed outside. In the daytime my wife and I labored in the rice and vegetable fields and in the night I read sutras of Buddha under the light of an oil lamp while my wife and children where sleeping in bed. In spring and summer I enjoyed the twitters of birds. In the autumn my garden was full of flowers of cosmos. In winter it snowed deeply, and I heard the voices of hunted rabbits while I was weaving charcoal containers around the fire. I became very idle in writing letters and I acted rudely to people in acquaintance against my will. No radio or newspaper was in the house, and I could escape from troubles among people. The most terrible times were the rain storms and blizzards in the night. When attacking, I protected my family against the rain or snow by binding the doors and pushing them from the inside, however, it came into the rooms and fell onto the beds through the roof of cryptmeria barks. At last I fell into financial difficulties and had to sell books from my library with the help of my friend, Professor Namba of Tokyo University. One day I suddenly lost my eyesight. I thought I could not work anymore, fortunately I recovered in about a month. My wife fell ill, perhaps it came from an unbalanced diet. She had to go to her father living in Osaka. I had to bring up my children by myself.
+
+One day in the autumn of 1951, when the sun was shining in the blue sky, I received a letter from Professor S. Yamamoto of the School of Explosives at Tokyo University. Dr. Yamamoto recommended Hanabi, fireworks, to me. I did not know anything about fireworks, but felt it might be very interesting and I accepted Dr. Yamamoto's request. Dr. Yamamoto was the only one who was concerned with fireworks at that time as a scholar in Japan. Dr. Yamamoto asked me to suppress accidents in this field and to make the traditional technique more scientific.
+
+In November 1951 I obtained a position at Hosoyo Fireworks Co. in Tokyo through the introduction of Dr. Yamamoto. I had there two duties; to learn the manufacturing of fireworks from the president, Masao Hosoya, and to modernize the factory in business and technique. Mr. Hosoya very kindly taught his secrets in the technique called the "Machida School". I analyzed the technique of Japanese chrysanthemum shells and Dr. Yamamoto recommended that I submit the paper as a thesis for a degree. In 1958 I was granted the degree of Doctor of Engineering with the paper "The Design Conditions of Chrysanthemum Shells".
+
+My senior, A. Kawai, who was a friend of Dr. Yamamoto, asked me to help with his work, the manufacturing of rocket propellants at the plant of Dainippon Celluloid Co. in Kochi village in Hyogo-ken. Therefore, I often visited the plant and helped Mr. Kawai in designing rocket propellant. In the plant there were not many people, but two very superior assistants, Matsumoto, and Matsuda.
+
+In 1963 I changed my position to the Perfect Liberty Religion Order in Osaka, accepting the offer from the founder, T. Miki, who planned to build a new factory and an institute of fireworks. However, the plan was not realized because of financial reasons. I had been very much disappointed. Dr. Yamamoto had passed away in the same year and I lost my largest prop and stay in fireworks. I had plenty of time every day and decided to learn languages from the NHK Broadcasting. I had a secret desire to live in some foreign country to build a fireworks factory. I learned English, German, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, and by books, Italian, and Arabic. I used to walk from my house to the PL fireworks office memorizing Arabic letters. I was often interrupted by the kind PL teachers who offered to bring me by car.
+
+In 1967 1 got my present position in the factory of Koa Fireworks. The factory was built by my old friend, the late N. Mizogami, who built a small laboratory for me. The factory was mainly producing maritime distress signals. I continued the study of fireworks finding time intervals at the work until today following the request of my old teacher Dr. Yamamoto. Therefore, very often, even on holidays, I am not working at home, but in my laboratory at the factory, which is fifteen kilometers distant from my house.
+
+In the past some friends from overseas countries stayed overnight in my home in Kawagoe-shi, which is thirty five kilometers distant in the north-west from Tokyo: Miss Sigrid Wied, Dr. F-W Wasman, W. Zink from Germany, Pierre-Alain HUBERT from France, and Mrs. Pettit from the USA. Recently my wife fractured a vertebra and I can not invite guests to my home any more. My work room has been recently confused. The book-shelves are full of books and the residual books are scattered on the tables and floor. On the shelves there stand the complete works of philosophy by the late Dr. Nishida, and the same of the late Dr. Tanabe and of the late Kenji Miyazawa on his poets, the Testaments in various languages, books concerning Buddhism plus technical books, etc. They are covered in dust and will sleep until I have more time.

chapters/10-2-1-blackpowder-manufacture.md

@@ -0,0 +1,338 @@
+**Black powder** (or gunpowder) in all its varieties undoubtedly is the most essential pyrotechnic material and no serious pyrotechnician can get on without. If we consider amateur pyrotechnics being more than making sparklers or basic fountains and lighting stars on the ground, we will have to draw our attention to one special question: **How can I manufacture suitable black powder my own?**
+
+Many of us once got the shock of their pyro career comparing the performance of homemade powder with commercial and asked themselves: How the hell can the same chemical compound perform in such a different manner? Such experiences often initiate lifelong quests for fast powder.
+
+Manufacturing high performance black powder is a skill best acquired at the very beginning of one´s pyro career. Having handy good gunpowder will crack numerous possible performance problems. However, numerous pyros seem to skip adopting such skills and there is a certifiable (but somehow understandable) trend to proceed to making complex items without knowing too much about the basics. Some hobbyists are satisfied with the outcomes of their work (so there is no reason why they should look for improvement); many others face problems and look out for help, not least justly accusing the bad performance of their black powder of being responsible for the outcomes.
+
+It is the **purpose of this page** to assist both the newcomer and the experienced hobbyist in discovering suitable methods of small-scale black powder manufacture. It **discusses and compares the most relevant methods for home use in terms of efficiency, effort, cost, safety and outcome**. With the informations provided everyone should be capable of manufacturing diverse qualities of gunpowder ranging from basic, slow-burning composites (not every application requires a fast product!) to black powder reaching or surpassing the performance of commercial grain.
+
+In addition the [Black Powder Manufacture - Questions page](Black_Powder_Manufacture_-_Questions_page.html "Black Powder Manufacture - Questions page") tries to answer possible questions and will respond the objections.
+
+The following table compares some of the most common methods of small-scale BP manufacture.
+
+|   |   |   |   |   |   |
+|---|---|---|---|---|---|
+|**Method used**|**Efficiency**|**Effort**|**Cost**|**Safety**|**Performance of end product**|
+|||||||
+|A.) **Screening prepared materials**|high|low|low|rather safe|very low|
+|B.) **Hand grinding (wet or dry)**|very low|very high|low|rather unsafe|low|
+|C.) **Three component milling without ball mill**|high|low|low|unsafe|low|
+|D.) **CIA method without preparing materials (in ball mill)**|medium|medium|high|safe|medium|
+|E.) **Three component ball milling (up to three hours)**|medium - low|low|medium|unsafe|medium - high*|
+|F.) **Three component ball milling (for more than 3 hours)**|low|low|medium|unsafe|medium - high*|
+|G.) **Double & double component ball milling**|low|medium|medium|safe|medium - high*|
+|H.) **Combined ball milling and CIA**|low|medium - high|high|safe **|medium - high ***|
+
+(*) depending upon the efficiency of your mill (**) watch out for spillage of hot material! Gloves are essential! (***) depending on how carefully the process is executed
+
+_About table:_ Efficiency is determined by the output of the process per unit of time. Effort describes how much work is necessary to produce an amount of powder (the time the pyrotechnician is busy with production; a running ball mill however does not add to this but to the first aspect). Performance compares the burning characteristics of the outcomes (it is plain that for a meaningful comparison we must use the same raw materials in every method).
+
+A.) **Screening prepared materials:**
+
+The [screen method](Screen_method.html "Screen method") is the most common method of mixing compositions (e.g. for most stars, fountains, etc.) and consists in passing prepared, hand mixed raw materials through a mixing screen several times. Although via this method the materials are sufficiently integrated for most pyro uses, the same is not true with gunpowder. If we mix gunpowder ingredients using the screen method the **outcoming product is very slow burning and leaves a lot of residue**. Powders gained by this process are **combustible but performing too weakly for realistic use** wherever we want to produce force or transfer fire fastly. On the other hand when all that we desire is a cheap combustible product screening is all we will have to do. Such a screened composite is often called **"scratch mix" or "green mix"** and is the **prime** of choice for most stars (not for e.g. AP based ones).
+
+Apart from priming, the only popular use for screened black powder in modern pyrotechnics is as a structural filler in (cylinder) shells. As such it is called [Pulverone](Pulverone.html "Pulverone") (Polverone) or **rough powder**. Polverone is BP (with additional binders) integrated using the screen method and processed by wetting and rubbing it through a window screen (a process often referred to as [ricing](Ricingaction%3dedit.html "Ricing")). Many pyros also denominate well-integrated powders that have been riced as polverone, although they are actually using the wrong term. Polverone fills the spaces of e.g. cylindrical comet shells (similar to sawdust) and burns away when the shell goes off; due to its weak burning characteristics it is not used to lift or break shells (except in Maltese shells).
+
+|                                             |
+| ------------------------------------------- |
+| **Materials and tools:**                    |
+| Raw materials                               |
+| Scale                                       |
+| Coffee grinder, mill, roller or similar     |
+| Screen (100 mesh or finer)                  |
+| Mixing screen (sth. between 16 and 60 mesh) |
+| Two large sheets of paper                   |
+| (Screening station)                         |
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**Steps:**|
+|1.) Singly prepare each material via milling, grinding with roller etc.|
+|2.) Singly pass each material through 100 mesh|
+|3.) Weight proper amounts out of presieved material|
+|4.) Hand mix and pass through mixing screen several times|
+|5.) (Reweight outcome)|
+
+Using the screen method for making BP is highly efficient because it allows producing a high amount of powder in a short period of time, quickly screening the ingredients together. Effort and cost are low. Due to the low friction sensitivity of gunpowder the process is comparably safe. However, the performance of the outcome is very low.
+
+B.) **Hand grinding (wet or dry):**
+
+Hand grinding different materials using mortar and pestle has been a common mixing method for centuries and is still sometimes used by pharmacists and chemists. Except probably in the laboratories of its inventors and for experimental use, namable quantities BP were never manufactured in this manner - with good reason. Hand grinding gunpowder for some pyros (due to absence of suitable skill or machinery) still is the method of choice but it undoubtedly also is **the most laborious method you can choose**.
+
+The force of the product will generally rise the longer the materials are ground, but there is a **practical limit of fineness** and integration approachable via hand grinding. Because of the properties of the grinding action the efficiency of the process will decrease if we increase the amount of material in the mortar (hand grinding needs a special technique and the materials are successfully ground only when we drive the pestle around the walls in a circular manner: too much material present makes efficient grinding impossible). So **we can only grind a small amount of material at once**. Even when the process is carried out correctly with a heavy pestle, it can take hours until the materials are suitably integrated. The force of the end product however remains weak (compared to other methods) under all practically defensible circumstances. Furthermore there is a small but existing risk of spontaneous ignition due to shock or friction; this and the fact that the pyro is always in close proximity to the powder being integrated makes this method comparably unsafe.
+
+Some pyros argue that **wet grinding** drastically improves the outcome and makes the process safer, but the former argument remains doubtful. A moisture content imitating the conditions of commercial wheel milling does not add much force to the powder under low pressure hand integration. On the other hand, if we adapt wet methods (as those known for mixing very sensitive compositions) and increase the moisture content up to 30 percent by weight integration may be promoted, but the formation of large crystals of potassium nitrate during a slow drying process will break the performance of the powder.
+
+To sum this up I do not advise anybody to use hand grinding to manufacture BP. However the process itself is easy and no further description is necessary.
+
+C.) **Three component milling without a ball mill:**
+
+In absence of a ball mill using other mills is standing to reason, e.g. **coffee grinders or small scale macerators** for kitchen use are cheap and readily available. Such machinery is not designed for continous operation but for an operating time ranging somewhere between a few seconds and minutes. There is also a practical limit for the achievable fineness of grist, so the materials won´t become finer after a certain period of milling.
+
+While such mills are useful items for the preparation of raw materials (e.g. quickly grinding coarse saltpeter for use in stars) or of BP fuels before using the CIA method, employing them for three component BP milling (due to weak integration) **only produces a slow burning product**. Its performance probably ranges somewhere between screened and hand ground powder.
+
+Depending on the capacity of your machine the efficiency is generally high. You can knock out a viable quanitity of powder in a short period of time, but the method is rather unsafe because a highly combustible composition is exposed to rotating metal blades or similar. Three component milling in small grinders is not advisable both from a safety and performance standpoint.
+
+D.) **CIA method without preparing materials (in ball mill):** --> **see H.)**
+
+E.) **Three component ball milling (up to three hours):**
+
+Ball milling certainly is the **most popular method for small-scale BP manufacture** and can produce fast powder. Ball mills are capable of grinding and integrating materials down to a degree of fineness only few other mechanical methods can achieve. In pyrotechnics the [ball mill method](Ball_mill_method.html "Ball mill method") is reserved for two purposes for safety reasons: it serves well for a) the preparation of individual chemicals (e.g. before screening) or the integration of non-combustible compositions, and - with provisions - for b) the dense mixing of gunpowder type compositions without any metals. Ball milling must not be employed for mixing any compositions containing chlorates, perchlorates or metal powders!
+
+When it comes to BP manufacture, we want ball mills to grind and integrate the raw materials as well as possible. But mills are not mills. Many ball mills are capable of producing very fine materials and fast powders in under three hours while other mills need a considerable number of hours to give the same outcome. But why is that and **what is a good mill**? Many people have done research about what makes a mill efficient, with Lloyd Sponenburgh leading the way. The reason that the mills (also known as Sponenburgh-mills or Sponenmills) designed following his concept are efficient cannot be found in the parts he uses or the ambitious mill layout he proposes, but in the compliance with some basic but very important construction principles. The details are best given on a distinct site concerning ball mills, but the most important points are:
+
+- the jar is correctly proportioned and rotates at the right speed for its size
+- the size of the media conforms to the jar size
+- the amount of media stands in correct relationship to the jar capacity (50% of volume)
+- the amount of processed material (load) stands in correct relationship to the jar capacity (25% of volume)
+
+Using an **efficient mill** drastically reduces the milling times because every strike of the balls actually crushes material; milling times exceeding the three hours will not be necessary and will just unnecessarily wear both jar and media. Also note that in case of ball milling there is a **practical limit** of achievable fineness, so after a certain period of grinding the material will not come out noticeably finer or better, even if you grind it for weeks.
+
+Now how is milling done? Once you determined the optimum charge for your mill, basically all you have to do is to load and switch on the mill. The tables give a description of the process.
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**Materials and tools:**|
+|Raw materials|
+|Scale|
+|Ball mill|
+|(Large sturdy, coarse screen)|
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**Steps:**|
+|1.) (Determine optimum charge)|
+|2.) Weigh out proper amount of raw materials corresponding to optimum charge|
+|3.) Load jar with media and materials|
+|4.) Mill for three hours in out of the way place|
+|5.) Empty mill (using the large screen to retain media)|
+
+What does determining the optimum charge mean and why do I have to do this? The opinions differ on how to best determine the optimum charge but I'd like to keep things easy and use the following method: The main problem is that ball mills are loaded by volume but we want to measure our raw materials by weight (with a scale). In other words, each time we load the mill we want an easily and accurately measurable (weighable) amount of material corresponding to both the optimum charge (by volume) of our jar and the ingredient ratios of the BP formula. Given these requirements we can´t just weight out a pound of raw materials and charge the mill by taking out a volume measured part equaling the optimum charge, because the ingredient ratios of this part taken out of unprocessed material will most likely deviate a lot from 75:15:10.
+
+Proceed like this instead: If you use your new jar/mill for the first time weight out enough raw materials to give a pound of black powder and process them by hand as well as you can (e.g. by grinding them separately in coffee grinders and integrating them with screens) to produce a pound of fine green mix. Then measure a volume of green mix equaling the optimum charge of your jar (25% of its empty capacity) and weight it. This weight value is a close approximation of the weight of your mills optimum charge; let´s say it weights 150 grams. That means each time you´re going to mill BP in the future the only thing you have to do is to weight out 112.5 grams of bulk KNO3, 22.5 grams of bulk charcoal and 15 grams of bulk sulphur. You can optimize these specifications by measuring the outcome volumes of milling processes and accounting for deviations the next time. Note that you most likely will have to alter your optimum charge weight when using different kinds of charcoal (they largely deviate from each other in volume).
+
+Due to the necessary milling of potassium nitrate three component milling is probably the **most inefficient way of using your mills capacity** for BP manufacture. Unless you are using large or multiple jars the amount of powder that can be processed at one go will be much less than you think it´s gonna be (note that the optimum charge is only 25% by volume of the empty jars capacity and especially charcoal is very voluminous, taking up a lot of volume and decreasing the possible charge weight).
+
+The manufacturing process is quite effortless for the pyro because his mill does the majority of the work. However, three component milling of BP materials exposes a potentially inflammable substance to high amounts of shock and friction, although BP is known to be comparably safe in relation to other pyrotechnic compositions and ball mills employ parts (non-sparking grinding media, jars etc.) that drastically reduce the chance of accidental ignition, mills loaded with BP have been known to explode - with devastating results. I don´t want to convey the impression that three component milling inevitably ends in an accident (hundreds of pyros do this daily - and still are alive), but I (and many others) dislike milling a highly energetic mix in a confined space with heavy balls potentially acting as shrapnel. Speaking of possible hazards, hard (often metallic) foreign matter possibly contained in your charcoal and/or potassium nitrate pose a risk. To sum up, I would avoid three component milling, especially if alternative methods giving equal or better results are available. Such methods - against common sense - do exist and will be explained here.
+
+F.) **Three component ball milling (for more than three hours)**
+
+The process is the same as in the case of E.) but the **mill is left running for a longer time**. With regard to the pyro community numerous enthusiasts of ball milling can be found; they agree in their opinion on milling and vote for long milling times, sometimes ridiculously long such as overnight, a day, 60 hours and more.
+
+While excessive milling may be necessary when using a mill of very low efficience, let me briefly mention some **arguments against such practice**:
+
+- there is a practical limit of achievable fineness, so super-long milling will not much improve the outcome
+- excessive milling wears media, jar and motor and consumes energy wastefully
+- there is no need for excessive milling when using an efficient mill
+- a running mill poses a potential hazard
+
+Don´t get it wrong: if you are successfully using this method and are willing to accept its drawbacks, there is no reason why you shouldn´t persist on it. I´m just giving some arguments here.
+
+G.) **Double & double component ball milling:**
+
+The potential dangers of three component milling can be avoided by using double and double component milling. The **idea is to use two seperate steps of ball milling** and to integrate the results by non-milling means (e.g. by screening). In this case the possible performance gain of milling the oxidizer together with a fuel is still taken into account but the oxidizer-fuel ratio is modified in a way producing a non-combustible compound. While milling compounds showing mixing ratios of potassium nitrate to charcoal varying between 4:1 and 6:1 (also called the critical proportions) in actual fact is still as dangerous as three component milling, the oxidizer-fuel mix becomes **incombustible** when we raise the proportions to 15:1.
+
+Against this background double and double component milling involves milling all of the potassium nitrate mixed with one third of the charcoal in a first step, and milling all of the sulphur together with the rest of the charcoal (again incombustible) in a second step. The outcomes of the two milling processes are finally integrated without using a ball mill.
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**Materials and tools:**|
+|Raw materials|
+|Scale|
+|Ball mill (with one or two jars)|
+|Mixing screen|
+|(Large sturdy, coarse screen)|
+|(Screening station)|
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**Steps:**|
+|1.) Weigh out one third of charcoal and add to all of the KNO3 (Mix A)|
+|2.) Take the remaining two thirds of charcoal and add to all of the sulphur (Mix B)|
+|3.) Mill both Mix A and Mix B separately for three hours (this can be done simultaneously when using a two-jar mill)|
+|4.) Empty jars (using the large screen to retain media)|
+|5.) Integrate the two milled mixes well by hand and pass them through mixing screen several times|
+
+  
+The efficiency of this method is lower than that of three component milling because two milling steps are necessary. However the **process itself is much safer** and the powder produced can be just as good.
+
+H.) **Combined ball milling and CIA**
+
+  
+**The CIA Method**
+
+Against one´s expectations the [CIA method](CIA_method.html "CIA method") has nothing to do with the well-known US secret agency. Although similar techniques had been investigated by others earlier, the method presented here is the result of a series of studies conducted in the environment of the US army during the 1960s. The results of the study on black powder were published in a booklet entitled "CIA Field Expedient Preparation of Black Powders"; the booklet contained experimental data along with a how-to on improvised gunpowder manufacture addressing to US army soldiers in the field.
+
+The method makes use of the fact that potassium nitrate is incredibly soluble in water. When a substance is dissolved, its "particles" are separated from each other on a molecular level - a property not attainable by any mechanical means. Thus, when we dissolve potassium nitrate, this implies: a.) the particles of the nitrate become very small, and b.) nitrate can be soaked into the pores of the charcoal, ensuring an intimate integration - two essential advantages when it comes to fast powder. However, the question is how a solid material can be retrieved from a solution without forfeiting the advantages only just obtained? When we allow the liquids to evaporate slowly, large crystals of KNO3 are formed, preventing the dried powder from reacting quickly.
+
+On the other hand, when we use alcohol to precipitate the dissolved nitrate, its particles remain small and the resulting powder does not loose its explosive nature. This comes from the fact that potassium nitrate is insoluble in a water/alcohol mixture, while the alcohol also acts as a dehydrating agent and absorbs part of the water.
+
+However, although the CIA booklet contained some valuable information, the outcomes of the method belied the high hopes of many pyros who had ordered both the booklet and lots of alcohol. The resulting gunpowder could not reach the performance of commercial. But why? While the original CIA approach requires optimization to give the best results possible, the inferior performance of many precipitated powders is explained mainly by an insufficient integration of the basic materials, in this special case, charcoal and sulphur.
+
+  
+**Improving the CIA approach**
+
+Those of you who have ever tried to grow crystals will probably be aware of the following: If you want your crystals to grow large, you will have to allow your salt saturated solution to evaporate and cool down slowly. Conversely, we can employ this factor to our advantage when we rapidly cool down a saturated solution of potassium nitrate. Doing so will end in tiny (invisible) crystals and thus an improved integration of KNO3. Given these requirements we will concentrate our attention on the alcohol, which both absorbs the solvent and cools down the mixture, and improve the method by:
+
+- using more alcohol
+- using colder alcohol.
+
+Although using more alcohol will raise the production costs of your homemade powder, it will drastically improve its performance. It´s a good idea to be generous in case of alcohol. Generally it is desirable to cool down the alcohol as far as possible; put it in the coldest corner of your refrigator (don´t use glass containers!) and leave it there for several days. Alcohol remains liquid far beyond the freezing point of water. It will take a considerable amount of time to cool it down properly.
+
+  
+**Improved CIA without ball milling**
+
+When we make use of an improved CIA method and proper raw materials, we can produce a suitable black powder product even in absence of a ball mill. Although its burning speed is nowhere near commercial, it´s good enough for many pyro applications (for lifting stars, comets, shells, making fuses etc.). The CIA method is the best choice for those of you who don´t have access to a ball mill. In this case a coffee grinder or a small kitchen macerator is used to reduce a combination of charcoal and sulphur to a fine powder. The premixed C/S is then employed in the CIA process described below.
+
+  
+**Combining improved CIA and ball milling**
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**CIA method: relative strenghts**|
+|Particle size of KNO3 can be kept smaller as in case of ball milling|
+|Wet process: KNO3 can be soaked into charcoal pores|
+|**CIA method: relative weaknesses**|
+|Cannot ensure small particle size/good integration of (water-insoluble) charcoal and sulphur|
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**Ball milling: relative weaknesses**|
+|Cannot reach KNO3 particle size of CIA (when properly executed)|
+|KNO3 crystals cannot be jammed into charcoal pores by mechanical means|
+|**Ball milling: relative strenghts**|
+|Ensures both small particle size and intimate integration of charcoal and sulphur|
+
+When the advantages of both CIA and ball milling are combined to manufacture black powder, the performance of the end product can reach or surpass commercial. While the CIA method - if properly executed - ensures a superior integration of potassium nitrate, the ball mill method is employed to intimately mix charcoal and sulphur.
+
+I personally consider the combined approach to be the best method for amateur black powder manufacture (I attempted to argue why I rate it higher than plain ball milling). Even in case of comparably short milling times the resulting product is more than fast enough for all kinds of pyro use. On the other hand, if we desire further improvement, we can simply change this variable and mill the C/S for a longer time.
+
+However, to give the best possible outcome the whole process - especially the wet mixing and precipitation procedure - has do be supervised and executed with great care and precision. The following lines try to give a detailed description of the process and point to possible problems.
+
+  
+**SECTION UNDER CONSTRUCTION** - Do not try out until method has been described in detail!
+
+|   |
+|---|
+|**Materials and tools:**|
+|Gunpowder raw materials|
+|750ml of well-chilled alcohol|
+|Water|
+|Scale|
+|Ball mill|
+|Hot plate (standalone, electric)|
+|Large pot (with bottom fitting diameter of hot plate, preferably becoming wider towards the top, aluminum is a good choice)|
+|Another wide pot|
+|Two containers e.g. aluminum bowls to contain the chemicals needed|
+|Spoon|
+|Whisk|
+|Measuring cup|
+|Cloth strainer|
+|Gloves (non-meltable material like cotton)|
+|Some sheets of newspaper (or other absorbent paper)|
+|(Baking sheet)|
+|(Large sturdy, coarse screen)|
+
+|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
+| ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
+| **Steps (500g batch):**                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
+| 1.) Mill 75g of charcoal together with 50g of sulphur in an optimized mill, mill for two hours or more                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
+| 2.) Empty the jar (using the large screen to retain media) and transfer the charcoal/sulphur into a container                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
+| 3.) Weigh 375g of potassium nitrate and place it in a container                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
+| 4.) Measure 300-330ml of water and pour it into the large pot                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
+| 5.) Transfer all of the KNO3 into the same pot and start stirring using your whisk until a good amount of the salt is dissolved in the cold water; this takes a while                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
+| 6.) Switch on your hot plate and place the pot on it; continue stirring until all of the KNO3 is dissolved; this becomes easier as the water heats up                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
+| 7.) As soon as there is no more solid salt, start adding the dry C/S (in increments!) with a spoon and stir vigorously to make sure that all the C/S is thoroughly mixed and wetted with the saturated solution; due to a weird surface tension effect this will take a considerable amount of time! Note that the pot is still on the hot plate during this step, being constantly heated. |
+| 8.) Once all the C/S is wetted and mixed in, bring the mix to a boil, stirring well.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        |
+| 9.) Remove the pot from the heat and leave it alone for 30 minutes.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
+| 10.) Place the pot on the hot plate again and bring it to a boil, constantly stirring well.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
+| 11.) Remove the pot from the heat and empty the contents into another pot filled with icecold alcohol; stir vigorously to make sure that everything is well mixed with the alcohol                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
+| 12.) Line the empty cooking pot with the cloth strainer and transfer the powder/alcohol mix into it                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
+| 13.) Gather the cloth strainer to remove the retained solid matter; wring out the resulting "ball" and squeeze it well to remove as much moisture as possible                                                                                                                                                                                                                               |
+| 14.) Line a baking sheet with newspaper and put in the powder retained in the cloth strainer; break up the ball by hand and distribute the powder well on the paper                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
+| 15.) Dry the powder well in a warm but shady location; you may place it the sun as soon as most moisture has evaporated                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
+| 16.) Crush the dried irregular grains will a roller to end up with powder ready for post-processing                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
+|                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
+TODO UPCOMING:
+
+Post processing
+Testing and Storing
+  
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+
+**Recommended literature on BP (examples):**
+
+Lancaster, Ronald: Fireworks. Principles and Practice, 3rd edition, Chapter 3: Gunpowder
+
+Sponenburgh, Lloyd: Ball milling theory and practice
+
+Von Maltitz, Ian: Black Powder Manufacture. Testing and Optimizing
+
+Von Maltitz, Ian: Black Powder Manufacture. Methods and Techniques

chapters/10-2-2-rolling-stars.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+Rolling stars is as much of a skill as it is a technique. The person rolling stars needs to have a good sense of size, consistency, and many other factors that influence rolling stars. In this tutorial, one method of rolling stars will be addressed and explained. Teaching is not an option, as hands-on experience is the only way to learn to roll stars both efficiently and properly.
+
+## Materials
+
+- A good place to start with materials is a star rolling device. Either you can go with an old-fashioned method and use a chinese wok or similar type pan or bowl, or you can either make or buy a star rolling machine. The basic star rolling machine consists of a plastic or metal tub or drum, either turned by a set of rollers or spun by a shaft. An electric motor runs the whole device, and the speed (RPM) of that motor determines how the device needs to be geared in order to run at maximum efficiency. See [Star roller](https://pyrodata.com/PyroGuide/index.php%5Etitle=Star_roller.htm "Star roller") for more information. The pyrotechnician needs one of these simple, yet advanced tools in order to begin rolling stars.
+- A small spray bottle with adjustable spray pattern.
+- Various types of scooping and scraping devices - spoons, putty knives, etc.
+- Star composition(s) for rolling. Beginners should use less-expensive compositions to start with as good amounts will be wasted due to the learning process. Amounts will vary. I find that to make rolled stars for a 3" round shell, it usually takes about 100g (4oz.) of composition. You will end up rolling only about 80-90g of this, and the rest of the composition will be excess. But it is better to have extra than not enough when deadlines are closing in.
+- Cores. I typically use lead shot, about #8, as suggested in some other tutorials for rolling stars. The lead works well to establish the cores of the stars as it picks up composition easily and weighs more than traditional cores like corn cob and rice hulls. Certain stars will use specialty cores such as [dragon eggs](https://pyrodata.com/PyroGuide/index.php%5Etitle=Crackling_Micro-stars.htm "Crackling Micro-stars"), [strobe composition](https://pyrodata.com/PyroGuide/index.php%5Etitle=Strobe_Mix.htm "Strobe Mix"), etc. Other types of core material can be used, but with some difficulty, especially to the beginner.
+- Some type of sizing "screen" in order to gauge the size of your stars. You will need these in order to keep your stars the same size and not have some growing much faster than others. I use a homemade approach to the uber-expensive sizing screens by drilling holes in a small plastic bowl. Use many different bowls for many different sizes. If you're sticking with small stars, I suggest sizes of 3/16", 1/4", 5/16", and 3/8". Much bigger than that and you'll be working with 4" shells.
+- Many plastic containers. You'll nees extra containers for wet, useless star composition, and for keeping separated the different sized stars once you run them through the screens.
+
+## Procedure
+
+What you will need:
+
+**Cores**- #8 lead work well, but I'm using small pumped stars.
+
+**[Composition](https://pyrodata.com/PyroGuide/index.php%5Etitle=Composition.htm "Composition")**- Some compositions are much easier to roll than others. Generally the hardest compositions to roll are ones with a large percentage of coarse flake aluminium. People may also have trouble with coarse Titanium containing compositions, some Charcoal streamers and Red gum bound stars.
+
+**Solvent/adhesive**- Alcohol and water at 25:75 is the standard formula.
+
+**AND**: A star roller or wok.
+  
+First, You have to choose a type of core. In this example I'll be using pumped Yankie's flashing stars. I'll be layering some slow meal powder on them. This will be a Tiger Tail like affect.
+
+Fill your roller with 5 to 15 cores. Turn on your roller or start moving your wok in a circular motion. (Make sure that it does not exceed 70 rpm. Mine is about 60. Add a little dry composition and spray a small amount of alcohol/water at about 25:75. Try not to hit the bowl. If you do, its not the end of the world.
+
+Your cores should be picking up the composition. If not, add some more water/alcohol mix. Only add in small amounts. Then add some more dry composition and some more alcohol/water.
+
+Continue this process until your stars are your desired size. Then coat them in prime.

chapters/10-2-3-black-match.md

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+**Black match**, also known as **bare match**, is a simple fuse that is regularly used in pyrotechnics, is very easily ignited and typically burns about 1 inch _(2.5 cm)_ per second, depending on the quality of the [black powder](Black_Powder-2.html "Black Powder") used. Commercially it is used almost exclusively for the manufacture of [quick match](Quick_match.html "Quick match") or in priming. However in some hobbyist circles it is commonly used as a fuse for igniting entire pyrotechnic devices. Black match is made by coating a thread or threads with a slurry consisting of Black powder, a solvent and a binder, with the solvent usually but not exclusively being water (with or without a fraction of alcohol added). Dextrin is the most commonly used binder in the hobby firework world, with Gum Arabic being less frequently used but superior, with many less issues with flexibility and crumbling. When using black match one must consider the potentially unreliably burn rate and the possibility of sparks from other devices igniting it.
+
+Tutorial
+Composition
+
+Meal powder or Black powder	30
+Dextrin	3
+
+Tools and materials
+
+Tools and materials
+Tools
+Plastic mixing cups, digital scales, mixing sticks--paddle pop sticks are fine, isopropyl alcohol, plastic spoons, spray bottle, small plastic container and 1/8" (3 mm) drill bit. You will also require standard cotton string that needs to absorb moisture easily (i.e. the black powder slurry). Do not use cooking twine, nylon string etc. It needs to be thick enough to slide through the 1/8" hole we are going to drill in the plastic container lid.
+
+Measuring out ingredients
+
+Measuring out ingredients
+Method
+Carefully weigh the meal and dextrin powders into the plastic cups and set them aside. The reason why you should weigh them separately is, if you add too much of an ingredient it is easily adjustable. Dextrin acts as a binder and when the composition dries the black powder will harden making the black powder covered string harden. Now measure out a ratio of 1:4 of isopropyl alcohol and water (ie. 10 ml of isopropyl alcohol and 40 ml of water), if you use more alcohol the dextrin will lose it's adhesive properties. Pour this into your spray bottle. You don't have to use a spray bottle, you can use a small mist pump or manually spoon small amounts of the solution into the mix, the choice is yours.
+
+Screening together the two powders
+
+Screening together the two powders
+Now mix both the meal powder and dextrin together and blend using the screen method until the mixture is homogeneous.
+
+Drilling hole in lid through which string will be pulled
+
+Drilling hole in lid through which string will be pulled
+With your small plastic container, drill a 1/8" (3 mm) hole into the center of the lid. Do this by placing the lid on a scrap piece of wood for support and slowly drill the hole. Make sure the hole is clean and has no burrs, if there are remove them.
+
+Feeding string through the hole in the lid
+
+Feeding string through the hole in the lid
+Prepare your string by cutting it into approximately 30-40 cm lengths (12" - 16"). This is a convenient length to work with and provides long enough fuses for most purposes but longer or shorter lengths may of course be used. Take one length and thread it through the hole about 2-3 cm (3/4" - 1").
+
+Spraying the solution
+
+Spraying the solution
+We now need to prepare the black powder slurry. Using your spray bottle add a small amount of solution we prepared into the composition and mix together. Continue adding the solution until you achieve a slurry paste (consistency of yogurt). The alcohol reduces the surface tension in the mixture and makes the water actually "wetter". When the string is pushed into the black powder slurry, it will absorb quickly into the cotton string, much faster than it would with just plain water. Empty the slurry into the plastic container.
+
+Mixing the string into the slurry
+
+Mixing the string into the slurry
+Take the lid and feed the string into the slurry, taking care not to tangle it. Using a mixing stick submerge the string in the slurry making sure it is completely covered and attach the lid. You will need to let the string sit in the slurry for about 1 minute. This will allow the string to absorb the mixture deep into the fibers. Dampening the mix also dissolves the potassium nitrate and this will be easily absorbed into the pores of the charcoal, making the black match burn better.
+
+Pulling sting through the lid
+
+Pulling sting through the lid
+Place one hand on the plastic container and take hold of the string. Carefully pull the string out of the hole. It will now have a nice even coat of black powder slurry. Attach the string to a board or clothes hanger with a peg and allow drying time of a few days. Although it may appear to dry in about a day, it will actually take several days to completely dry and become usable.
+
+Dried black match
+
+Dried black match
+Simply repeat the process again with a new piece of string, you will need to add more solution to your slurry as the string will absorb the moisture and make the slurry dry. Once your black match is completely dry (it will be rigid) cut it to your desired lengths.

chapters/10-3-gunpowder-grades.md

@@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+**Black powder** that passed through the steps of pressing to a known density (generally about 1.7-1.75g/ccm) and breaking down again, is finally separated by grain size using a nest of screens.
+
+Due to practical considerations (physical properties etc.) and with a view to simplification (comparability, reproducibility etc.) **particle size ranges** of different grades of gunpowder were standardised (although commercial manufacturers still slightly deviate from each other). Different grades show distinct burning characteristics and are used for different purposes.
+
+**Different grades of gunpowder (after GOEX standard)**
+
+|   |   |   |   |   |
+|---|---|---|---|---|
+|**Grade:**|**through (mesh):**|**on (mesh):**|**Particle size range (microns):**|**Popular uses (examples):**|
+|||||
+|FA|3 1/2|5|5660-4000|uncommon, lifting very large calibre shells|
+|2FA|4|12|4760-1680|lifting shells, breaking cylinder shells|
+|3FA|10|16|2000-1190|lifting shells, lifting/breaking cake items, inserts|
+|4FA|12|20|1680-840|lifting shells, comets, stars, lifting/breaking cake items, shell inserts|
+|5FA|20|50|840-297|lifting stars; dipping primed crossettes, comets|
+|6FA|30|50|595-297||
+|7FA|40|100|420-149||
+|Meal D|40|-|<420|priming stars, finished devices; used in fountain/star comps; charging spolettes|
+|Fine Meal/Flour|100|-|<149|blackmatch manufacture|
+|Extra Fine Meal/Flour|140|-|<105|blackmatch manufacture|
+
+**On nomenclature:** The number of "F"s indicates the particle size of grain powders; the more Fs, the finer the grain. Sometimes e.g. a 4FA gunpowder is also written FFFFA, especially in some of the older publications. "A" indicates the fact that the powder contains potassium nitrate as the oxidiser, in contrast to so called "B" blasting powders using sodium nitrate, which are not normally used for fireworks. Graphite polished cannon grade powders are denoted replacing FA with "Fg", and e.g. a 4Fg shooting powder would be as fine as a 7FA fireworks powder. Fireworks powders are not normally polished, although polished grain sometimes can be found in consumer articles.

chapters/10-6-charcoal-manufacturing.md

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+## Carbonisation process
+
+### Materials
+
+Wood
+
+There are various types of wood that can be used in black powder, and all perform differently. Willow, Alder, Birch, Fir, Oak, Beech, Ash, Pine, Balsa are just some of the woods that can be used to manufacture charcoal and if charred properly it will produce excellent quality black powder. In this example the wood used is balsa wood which can be bought from hardware’s and hobby stores. It is very soft and light weight wood, which is a little expensive, however you can actually make a reasonable amount of very fast burning black powder with a small amount. The piece in the picture is 80cm long, 10cm wide and 1cm thick and cost $5.95.
+
+Cooking container
+
+Any pot with a lid will work, as the wood needs to be charred without (or as little as possible) the presence of oxygen. In this example we are using an old paint tin with a few holes drilled into the lid to allow the gases to escape.
+
+Heat source
+
+You need a moderate heat source to char the wood. Too much heat will burn the wood completely through using most of its fuel source for your black powder. Basically the charred wood when finished should be black to dark brown in colour. Either place your container on an open fire or like in this example, as we are only making a very small amount, on the BBQ gas burner.
+
+Method
+
+If using an old paint tin, make sure it's clean of any paint. Drill several 5mm holes into the lid, this will allow the gases to escape during cooking time. Break your wood/twigs into small pieces and pack them tightly into the paint tin and secure the lid. Do not use wood that is still wet (fresh green wood), as it takes a long time to dry inside the cooker and in the process a large amount of energy from the wood is lost driving off the water. Also, never use treated woods of any kind as these can contain arsenic and other nasty chemicals and you don't want to breathe these in as they are released during cooking time.
+
+Now place your tin or cooker onto your heat source. As mentioned previously don't char your wood with too strong a heat source or it will cook too fast and burn too much of your woods fuel rendering it pretty much useless. As the walls of the paint tin are thin and the wood we are cooking is very soft, within a minute or two you will start to see smoke escaping out of the holes in the lid. This is called pyrolysis, the process of heating the wood in the absence of oxygen. Every few minutes or so give the paint tin a 1/4 of a turn to allow the wood inside to char evenly.
+
+Depending on the amount, type and size of wood you are charring the cooking time will vary. Basically once you have given the container several rotations and the smoke escaping is slowing down then its time to remove from the heat. It is important to make sure you don't heat for too long. Good charcoal looks like the original wood / twigs but black with a brown tinge. It should not have split lengthwise and it should break easily with a sharp snap. The rings in the wood should still be visible. If the charred wood has turned a grey or white colour, its been cooked to long and should be discarded. In the case of balsa wood, let it stand for several hours to cool. With denser wood, allow it to cool for about 24 hours. You don't want to add an oxidiser and shove it inside a ball mill if there is a chance it may still be hot inside the charred wood.
+
+In the example only half of the balsa wood was added to the paint tin, and it yielded about 20 grams of very high quality charcoal. If making standard 75:15:10 black powder you can make about 123 grams of very hot and very fast burning black powder. Not bad for about 20 minutes work.
+
+Most people who make high quality black powders use it only in black powder rockets, cylindrical shell breaking and so on where performance is required. Standard black powder is used for other general purposes like dusting stars to assist in ignition at effect time.
+
+Medium-scale pine charcoal production may be carried out in a large steel cauldron or drum of at least 80 litres. The cauldron is equipped with a lid having a 20mm gas escape tube attached in the middle, using an angled tube connector. The container is filled with pine logs, lid is secured in place using aluminium foil tape, and the whole setup is mounted on a sand-bank, bottom of the cauldron heading up, and the gas escape tube in horizontal. The cauldron is rounded with masonry bricks, forming a combustion chamber between the bricks and the cauldron. The wood is then cooked for three hours, with the temperature held near 450'C. The wood tar extracted in the process is collected in a tin and the residual gas is burned. The escaping gas is carbon monoxide, and accordingly this process should occur outside to prevent poisoning. It is important that you let the gas escape for ten minutes before you try to ignite it; the air in the retort must be subsided by carbon monoxide to prevent an explosion.
+
+To get good pine charcoal, the heating must be stopped when the tar production is very minimal at the temperature of 450'C. The gas flame is observed small and 'dirty' at this point, tar seems to be 'watery'. The whole setup is allowed to cool at least one day before opening, otherwise the contents will be combusted. After you open the container, crush the contents with a large shovel, then shift out coal with a kitchen sieve, crush again, shift again, until all the coal is reduced into powder. The coal made this way is in a form of little needles, just perfect for long hang-time comet/star effects. In the comp mixing process, a little acetone should be added for dissolving resins left in the coal, to make a path for the oxidizer-water solution into coal.
+
+There are alternative methods for heating up the retort. The gas escaping, could be returned in a round burner heating the cauldron, wood would be dry-distilled on their own energy, the gas could be mixed with LPG gas. Electric heating is also possible. Be careful, do not get incinerated or electrocuted.
+
+The yield of wood tar is 1-5 litres, varying greatly with the resin content of the wood. Save the tar for other purposes. It is great for preserving wood but it is carcinogenic, so it must not be ingested.
+
+## Charcoal Suitability Table
+
+The following table lists general suitability guidelines for charcoals coming from different types of raw wood. It must be noted that much depends on the specific subspecies used, the manufacturing process, the derivation of the wood and other factors like the season of cut.
+
+Charcoals "make or break" gunpowder; those listed as "suitable" can be used for BP manufacture and can give adequate results. However, scientific tests show that speed increases up to 500% are possible when using high performance charcoal. Thus, who wants optimum performance is referred to the latter.
+
+It is plain that the final performance of any powder is also largely determined by the production method used. Thus it is not uncommon if e.g. a precipitated Hazel black powder clearly outstrips a hand ground powder using alder buck-thorn charcoal even if the latter contains the better material.
+
+|   |   |   |   |
+|---|---|---|---|
+|**Raw material**|**Suitable for BP?**|**Suitable for spark effects?**|**Additional information**|
+|Activated charcoal|no|suitable|
+|[Ailanthus (altissima)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/tree_of_heaven/tree_of_heaven.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/tree_of_heaven/tree_of_heaven.html")|suitable|unsure|
+|Alder (Alnus Rubra, Red Alder)|very suitable|unsure|
+|Alder (Alnus Tenuifolia, Thinleaf Alder)|suitable|unsure|
+|Alder (Alnus Glutinosa, Black Alder)|suitable|very suitable|Specified for BP by the british military|
+|Alder (Alnus Cordata, Italian Alder)|very suitable|unsure|Italian alder|
+|[Apple](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/apple_common/apple_common.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/apple_common/apple_common.html")|unsure, most: no|suitable|"Pyrus mains" gave excellent results in BP|
+|[Aspen](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/aspen_quaking/aspen_quaking.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/aspen_quaking/aspen_quaking.html")|suitable|unsure|"Trembling aspen" is a top performer|
+|Balsa|very suitable|no|Expensive raw material|
+|Bamboo|suitable|unsure|
+|[Beech](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/beech_european/beech_european.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/beech_european/beech_european.html")|suitable|suitable|Used in english powders|
+|[Birch (White)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/birch_european/birch_european.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/birch_european/birch_european.html")|unsure|unsure|Specifications coming soon...|
+|[Birch (Black)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/birch_black/birch_black.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/birch_black/birch_black.html")|unsure|unsure|
+|Buckthorn (alder)|very suitable|unsure|A top performer; specified for BP by the british military; "Frangula alnus"; highest porosity|
+|Buckthorn (carolina)|very suitable|unsure|A top performer|
+|[Cherry (virginian)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/cherry_flowering/cherry_flowering.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/cherry_flowering/cherry_flowering.html")|suitable|unsure|
+|Coconut|no|unsure|Often found as laboratory charcoal|
+|Cotton|unsure|unsure|Said to give excellent gunpowder|
+|[Cottonwood (narrow leaf)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/cottonwood/cottonwood.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/cottonwood/cottonwood.html")|very suitable|unsure|
+|[Dogwood (cornus florida)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/dogwood_flowering/dogwood_flowering.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/dogwood_flowering/dogwood_flowering.html")|very suitable|unsure|
+|Dogwood (cornus sanguined)|suitable|unsure|Used for BP charcoal in Britain|
+|Grapevine|unsure, most: very suitable|unsure|Performance depends on variety used; high ash content (consider formula adjustments)|
+|Grass|no|unsure|
+|Hazel|suitable|unsure|
+|Hemp|suitable|suitable|Popular for BP manufacture in the east|
+|[Hornbeam](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/hornbeam_american/hornbeam_american.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/hornbeam_american/hornbeam_american.html")|no|unsure|
+|[Horse chestnut](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/horsechestnut/horsechestnut.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/horsechestnut/horsechestnut.html")|suitable|very suitable|
+|Jute|suitable|unsure|
+|Lime|unsure|unsure|
+|Madrone (pacific)|suitable|unsure|
+|[Maple](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/maple_black/maple_black.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/maple_black/maple_black.html")|very suitable|unsure|Reputed choice of [GOEX](GOEX.html "GOEX"), member reported excellent results using silver maple|
+|Mesquite|suitable|unsure|
+|[Oak (chrysolepsis)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/oak_pin/oak_pin.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/oak_pin/oak_pin.html")|suitable|unsure|
+|Paulownia|very suitable|no|A top performer, popular in the east|
+|[Peach](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/peach/peach.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/peach/peach.html")|suitable|suitable||
+|[Pine](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/pine_red/pine_red.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/pine_red/pine_red.html")|unsure, some: very suitable|very suitable|Maybe the best for fire dust; BP: tests done with "Pinus radiata"(hardwood pine!) gave excellent results; too many species to generalize|
+|[Plum (prunus domestica)](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/plum_flowering/plum_flowering.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/plum_flowering/plum_flowering.html")|very suitable|unsure|A top performer; low ash content|
+|[Poplar](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/tulip_tree/tulip_tree.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/tulip_tree/tulip_tree.html")|suitable|unsure|Related to willow|
+|Sesban|suitable|unsure|
+|Tamarind|suitable|unsure|
+|Teak|suitable|unsure|
+|Umbauba|suitable|unsure|Reputed choice of Elephant Brand|
+|[Willow](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/willow_pussy/willow_pussy.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/willow_pussy/willow_pussy.html")|very suitable|very suitable|Acceptable results with any type; [Black willow](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/willow_black/willow_black.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/willow_black/willow_black.html") gives excellent results, Rocky mountain willow is inferior, [white willow](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/willow_white/willow_white.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/willow_white/willow_white.html") is good and specified by the British military, [weeping willow](http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact pages/willow_weeping/willow_weeping.html "http://www.oplin.org/tree/fact%20pages/willow_weeping/willow_weeping.html") and pacific willow both give very good results. Gives long lasting sparks.|
+
+## Theory
+
+From U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5292: Aliphatic components are distilled off or converted to aromatic species early in the charring process. No porosity develops in samples with heating at 250’C, even though substantial material loss does occur. At 300’C, both pine and poplar woods develop porosity and reach maximum aromatic carbon percentage after 8h of charring, whenafter the percentage starts decreasing. At 350’C and above there will be development of porosity and rapid decrease in aromatic carbon percentage after the first hour of heating. The appearance of porosity does coincide with the loss of aromatic carbon, which indicates that porosity does not develop, until after the conversion of aliphatic to aromatic carbon has ceased and aromatic carbon is being removed. There is some indication that prolonged heating may cause fused-ring structure to coalesce and reduce porosity. Wood consists of roughly two thirds of cellulose and one third of lignin. In lignin, three types of phenylpropanoid moieties may exist: Parahydroxyphenyl, guaiacyl and syringyl types. Fifty percent of polymeric linkages in lignin are Beta-O-4 ether linkages of phenylpropanoids. Cleavage of these linkages results in substantial depolymerization of lignin. At 250'C lignin shows little degradation, but at 300'C and above much more alteration is apparent.
+
+From US patent H000072: Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons having no functional oxygen groups - like antracene, does not sustain combustion with potassium nitrate. Instead, phenolic compounds - which are aromatic compounds having functional oxygen groups, burns very fast. For example, compositions using phenolphthalein as a charcoal substitute burns in fact faster than ordinary black powder. But, phenolics which undergo hydroquinone to quinone type oxidation, are much less reactive than other phenolics notably in compositions that contain sulphur. It is assumed that sulphur turns hydroquinone/catechol moieties into some less reactive species.
+
+From The DFRC Method for Lignin Analysis. 2. Monomers from Isolated Lignins: Relative distribution ratios of parahydroxyphenyl(P), guaiacyl(G) and syringyl(S) species of lignin propanoids depend on the wood species. Ratio for pine P=0,03 : G=1 : S=0, for aspen P=0,02 : G=1 : S=1.64, for willow P=0 : G=1 : S=1.54 and for kenaf P=0 : G=1 : S=5.08.
+
+It is known, that pine charcoal is good for producing long lasting sparks whereas aspen or willow charcoal yields fast black powder. According to a source, the chinese use kenaf charcoal in their fast black powder. Charcoal prepared from wood with syringyl lignin, might account for fast burning rate. According to another source, 'sulphurless black powder burned faster than powder with sulphur'. This might indicate that hydroquinone to quinone type oxidation reactions take place in some charcoals. Before conclusions these claims have to be tested for proof.
+
+
+Conclusions:
+
+Both charring temperature and time strongly affects the characteristics of resulting charcoal.
+Starting material affects the characteristics of resulting charcoal.
+Starting material should be reduced small enough to ensure fast and uniform heating.
+Charring temperature of 250’C is too low.
+Charring duration at 300’C should be few hours but not over 8 hours.
+Charring duration at 350’C should never exceed one hour.
+Control of charring duration at over 350’C will be difficult.
+Charring should be stopped when the smoke has ceased.
+Charring retort should have a temperature controller.
+Charring retort should be heated uniformly.

chapters/10-D-cake.md

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+A cake firework, also known as a candle barrage is a firework comprising a series of roman candles or single shot tubes connected together. Typically, the internal fusing is set to fire each tube in series, or to fire several tubes at the same time, or a combination of these. Typically a cake will resemble from the outside a simple cube or other rectangular covered shape; after detonation, a large number of cardboard tubes (the candles) will be visible in the top of the firework (the paper cover having been blown off by the discharging stars).
+
+In a traditional cake, all the candles point upwards; a variant is called the fan or angle cake.
+
+Cakes are one of the most popular types of firework, as they can create spectacular and long-lasting effects from a single ignition while minimising safety concern. In the United Kingdom, the reclassification of aerial shells to Category 4 has popularised cakes as a method for achieving similar effects while staying within safety guidelines, particularly by firing multiple candles at the same time.
+
+The cake described here consists of a paper tube that is tightly sealed by a clay end plug on one side. Inside the paper tube, a lift charge and some stars are placed. The process is repeated for a number of tubes and then they are fused together with a sufficient length of visco fuse. The tubes are then bound together and device is glued to a wooden base for stability. When the cake is fired, the fuse ignites each tube one at a time and the stars are shot upwards into the sky.
+## Materials
+
+Casing
+
+For a casing you will need a cardboard tube. Under no circumstances be tempted to use materials other than paper, it is dangerous and unnecessary. Roll or buy thick walled cardboard tubes, preferably parallel wound as they are much stronger than spiral wound tubes. The tubes should be sufficiently strong to allow ramming without wrinkling and to withstand the internal pressure during effect time. In this tutorial we are using small tubes that are 90mm long, have a 4mm wall and are 10mm inner diameter. Recycled toilet roll tubes are a cheaper alternative to bought tubes. Simply cut the toilet roll tube in half lengthways down the middle and roll around a wooden dowel or rammer, use white glue to glue to tube together. Sticky tape can be used to keep the tube bound together while it is drying.
+
+End plugs
+
+The base end plug is sealed with compressed clay, bentonite clay works well however in this example we will be using ground up kitty litter.
+
+Fuse
+
+Standard visco fuse works fine, or if you don't have access to this then black match is just as effective. About a 20 second long delay between ignition and effect is preferred. This is quite long, but it allows you to not only reach a safe distance but cakes also look much better from a distance. The rate at which the stars are ejected can be altered by using different types of fuses which burn at different speeds.
+
+Lift charge
+
+Granulated black powder works well.
+
+Stars
+
+You can use any type of star for your star mine (pumped, rolled or cut) however they need to be small enough to fit inside your casing. This example uses the granite star.
+
+Rammer or wooden dowel
+
+A rammer, wooden dowel or any other solid tool that will fit neatly inside the casing will be sufficient. This is used to both compress the end plugs and push the top end plug down inside the casing.
+
+Misc items
+
+Plastic mixing cups, digital scales, plastic spoons, drill and 2mm drill bit, small funnel, rubber hammer, paper masking tape and a wooden base.
+## Construction
+
+Take the casing and seal one end of it with a small piece of paper tape. Stand the casing upright on a solid surface and using your funnel place a 1/4 of a teaspoon of powdered clay into the casing. Insert the rammer into the casing and with your rubber hammer give the rammer a few good thumps. Be careful not to hit it too hard as you may split your casing at the base rendering it useless. It just needs to be firm enough to compress the clay powder until it's hard. Your aim is to create a clay plug this is the same thickness as the inner diameter of your casing, in this case 10mm. You may need to add another 1/4 of a teaspoon of powder clay to achieve this. Remove the paper tape from the base to expose the clay end plug.
+
+Use your drill to make a small 2mm hole just above the clay plug, this is where the visco fuse will be inserted. Do not drill a hole that is too large otherwise the internal pressure generated inside the casing will escape out of the hole and result in your effect stars not being ejected. Repeat this process for all the tubes that are going to be used in the cake device.
+
+Lay the tubes out on the ground side by side and measure a good length of visco fuse so it is long enough to pass through each tube. Remember add about 20cm extra to all you time to retreat to a safe distance at effect time. Now insert the fuse into each tube through the hole you drilled above the clay end plug. It is a good idea to secure the fuse to the side of the first tube after feeding it through the hole with some paper tape as this will help prevent the tubes from sliding off.
+
+Take hold of the end tube (the one which will be ignited last) and carefully roll them all together. Secure the rolled up tubes with a good length of paper tape, wrapped tightly several times around. Next step is to load each tube with lift charge and stars. Stand the rolled tubes on a solid surface ready for loading.
+
+Weigh out 1 - 1.5 grams of lift powder using your digital scales or accurate powder measuring scope. Depending on the quality of your lift powder you may need to adjust this quantity. The stronger the powder the less you need to use and vice versa. If you are not sure of the performance quality of your powder, it is better to add less or do a star test to determine the correct amount. You don't want the cake casing exploding at effect time or throwing them so high and fast they fail to ignite. Add your lift powder to your casing using your funnel, tapping it too gently to settle the powder.
+
+Depending on their size, insert 1 or 2 stars inside the casing so they sit on top of the lift powder. If you have smaller stars and are in a position were you can insert more you will need to add a little meal powder so that it surrounds the stars. This will help to ignite them at effect time. You don't want half of your effect stars being shot into the air unlit. To add more effect to your cake you can use different star compositions, or you can use crossette stars.
+
+A small piece of tissue paper rolled into a ball can be used to gently plug the open end of the tubes to help prevent the contents from falling out during transport. However it is very important not to make the plug too tight otherwise the tube may explode. Secure the device on to a large stable piece of wood with some hot melt glue. You can also wrap some coloured paper around the finished device to give it a more professional appearance.
+
+The firework device and associated equipment must be properly secured so that the firework and equipment do not become disturbed, dislodged or knocked over, or having the orientation changed regardless of the nature during a display, through normal or abnormal functioning of the firework, adjacent firework or through any other activity. It is recommended that a firework cake be secured to ground with a minimum of two wooden or metal rods with several strong turns of wide adhesive tape. The ground should be solid enough to rigidly hold the stakes with no lateral or upward movement possible.
+
+Reloading
+
+You can reload your casing as long as the previous shoot has not damaged it. Give your casing at least 30 minutes to rest before reloading, as there may be some hot embers inside you can't see. This can be dangerous when you are reloading new black powder as it could ignite unexpectedly. Examine your fuse hole to ensure it is still in good condition and has not been burnt into a bigger hole. This also includes a good examination of the casing walls. If the casing walls are thick enough you should get several shots before having to retire it. Before reloading your tube, it is recommended you clean it will a large drill bit. Use a 9mm or 10 mm drill bit and with your fingers gently slide this inside the casing and twist to remove any unwanted dross. If you are not sure your casing can withstand another shoot then don't risk it.

chapters/10-D-flare.md

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+
+A flare (or fusee) is described as a luminous device, that produces a brilliant light or intense heat without an explosion. Flares are used for signalling, illumination, or defensive countermeasures in civilian and military applications.
+
+Materials
+Casing
+Paper casing should be used. Under no circumstances use any thing other than paper, it is dangerous and unnecessary. You should be able to buy or make your own tubes buy rolling. Make sure they are heavy and thick walled to withstand the pressure when pressing.
+
+Tools
+A rammer with the same diameter as the casings ID is needed. It should be made of non-sparking material, such as aluminium or brass. Since most flares use compositions that contains metals, they need to be pressed using a hydraulic press or an arbor press.
+
+Composition
+There are many types of compositions for flares. Different compositions can be found at the Flare compositions page.
+A much cheaper version of the flare can be made with simple black powder with additional 5-10% metal powder.
+
+A nice bright flare can be made with this composition.
+NOTE: the addition of a percentage of charcoal will enhance the color of the potassium ions in the flame, slow the burn rate, and lower the candlepower to a tolerable yet functional level.
+
+Flare Composition
+Potassium Nitrate	5
+Aluminium (atomised, 200-325 mesh)	3
+Sulphur	2
+Fuse
+
+Simple visco fuse should do, but if this is unavailable, black match may be substituted. You may have trouble lighting metal fuelled comps so a hotter burning fuse maybe in order, I've used green falling leaf.
+
+Other
+You will need to choke one end of the flare. For this, bentonite and kaolin clay work well. The dry clay powder is rammed into the casing, producing a solid plug. Cheap kitty litter is often made of bentonite clay and may be used instead. You will also need masking tape, thin kraft paper, glue and twine.
+
+Flare Construction
+
+Seal one end of your casing with masking tape and put an increment of clay in the tube. Next insert the rammer and ram or press it in the tube. The clay plug should be as thick as the diameter of the casing.
+
+Take your casing and stand it upright. Gradually fill it with one increment your composition, then press it with the rammer in a hydraulic press or an arbor press. Continue to do this step until the tube is almost full of composition, but leave about 1-2cm at the top.
+
+Insert your fuse into the top of your flare on one side, then make a nosing by gluing a piece of kraft paper around the end of the tube, then tie it to the fuse using twine. This will make sure the fuse will stay in place
+
+NOTE: The flare should not be hand held, since it is homemade. Instead it should be inserted in the ground and then lit.

chapters/10-D-fountain.md

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+A fountain (also referred to as a gerb) is a thick walled cardboard tube that is filled with pressed pyrotechnic composition. It has a solid clay plug at the base and a nozzle or choke at the exhaust end. At effect time the composition burns and the choke generates intense pressure inside the tube. As the composition escapes it sprays sparks, flame and gasses high into the air. The effect can be altered based on the composition and without a choke the effect would be a weak spray of sparks.
+
+A fountain functions much like a end burning rocket and requires a composition that generates little to no dross as this will cause slag in the nozzle, limiting its performance or causing it to explode. Some commercial fountains are charged with varying coloured compositions, meaning the effect will change colour during the display.
+
+## Materials
+
+Casing
+
+A thick walled paper tube is used as a casing. Under no circumstances be tempted to use materials other than paper. It is dangerous and unnecessary. Find, roll or buy thick walled cardboard tubes, preferably parallel wound as they are much stronger than spiral wound tubes. The tubes should be sufficiently strong to allow pressing or ramming without wrinkling and to withstand the intense internal pressure at effect time. In this example we are using a gloss red 3/4" inside diameter tube which is 3 1/2" long and has a 1/8" wall.
+
+Effect charge
+
+Various compositions can be used as the effect charge however it must not be a formula that generates large amounts of dross. Dross will clog the nozzle exhaust and reduce the performance or cause the firework to explode. Most fountain compositions contain metal powders which spray white or orange sparks into the air. Adding course metal powders may alter the burn rate of the mixture slightly, perhaps requiring you to adjust the dimensions of the nozzle.
+
+The Nozzle
+
+Fountains require a nozzle. This is a plug in the exhaust end of the fountain, with a small opening. Nozzles for fireworks are usually made with clay. Bentonite and kaolin clay work well. The dry clay powder is rammed into the casing, producing a solid plug. Cheap kitty litter is often made of bentonite clay and may be used instead. Grind up the kitty litter into a fine powder, which is most easily done with a ball mill or coffee grinder. This powder can be used to produce rock-hard nozzles that erode very little.
+
+Tools
+
+A rammer and a hammer are needed (or a hydraulic press). Non sparking materials, such as aluminium, brass, rubber and wood should be used. You will also need paper tape, visco fuse or black match and a scoop for your various powders.
+## Construction
+
+Temporarily seal one end of the casing with a piece of paper tape (if you have specialised tooling you will not need to do this). Take a small amount of nozzle mix and dump this into the casing, tapping it to settle the powder. The aim is to approximately make the nozzle the same thickness of the casings inner diameter. This can be a little tricky and is an important step in building your fountain. A nozzle that is too thin will not be able to withstand the inner pressure and blow off. Make your nozzle too thick and it will affect the fountains performance. To be consistent make some tooling like a powder scoop to measure the exact amount every time that way you are guaranteed accurate results.
+
+Insert the ram into the inner casing and gently ram it with your hammer, or press it with your hydraulic press. You don't need to use a huge amount of force to achieve a rock hard nozzle. Exerting too much force will split you casing or cause a very small fracture, which under pressure can cause your firework to CATO.
+
+Next you need to add your effect charge in small increments (as always, no more at a time than will give a layer after ramming as thick as the casings inner diameter). As with the nozzle, using a powder scoop for adding the powder can help produce consistent results at this point. If you add too much powder you can create small air pockets in the composition and this will affect the performance of your fountain.
+
+As some compositions can only be pressed and not rammed it is very important you identify this prior to ramming the composition. Finally, ram or press a layer of clay again to form an end plug. The end plug of the fountain in the example is as thick as the casings inner diameter.
+
+Next you will need to drill a hole in the fountain nozzle. Depending on the quality of your powder a 4 mm hole should be sufficient however a hole 1/2 the size of the tubes ID is a generally accepted rule of thumb. Take care to center the hole well. To increase the surface area of powder available initially, a mandrel (core) is drilled into the effect charge as well. In the example, the hole was drilled 10 mm into the effect charge.
+
+All that remains is a fuse to light and attaching the fountain to a solid wood base. A sufficiently long (don't economise on fuse!) length of fuse is inserted into the nozzle and core of the fountain, as far as it goes. Black match or visco fuse may be used. If the fuse is loose, to prevent it from falling out it may be secured with a small piece of tissue paper which is pressed into the nozzle opening or prime . The fuse may be bent over and held in place with paper tape on the side of the fountain. This way of fusing allows you to light the fountain without having to hold a flame directly over the nozzle of the fountain and sparks falling into the nozzle, causing premature ignition. Remember, never stand over the fountain when lighting. The firework can now be mounted on a large solid piece of wood with hot melt or white glue.
+
+## Improvement tip
+
+To help inhibit dross formation, small amounts of hot mix composition (for example very fast burning black powder) can be added at periodic intervals. This is usually done at a ratio of 3:1. So 3 scoops of effect composition and 1 scoop of hot mix composition. This is not required for all fountain (gerb) compositions, however if you experience your nozzle being choked with dross then this will assist in clearing it during effect time.

chapters/1000-suppliers.md

@@ -1,28 +0,0 @@
-# Suppliers
-
-* [Lortone ball mills](https://lortone.com/)
-
-## United States (US)
-
-* [CannonFuse.com](https://cannonfuse.com/)
-* [Pyroworks US](https://pyroworks.us/)
-* [Skylighter](https://www.skylighter.com/)
-
-## Europe (EU)
-
-**Spain (ES)**
-
-* [Nitroparis](https://nitroparis.com/)
-
-**Germany (DE)**
-
-* [Pyro-Tools.eu](https://pyro-tools.eu/)
-
-**The Netherlands (NL)**
-
-
-
-**United Kingdom (UK)**
-
-* [Cooperman435](https://www.cooperman435.co.uk/)
-* [Potterycrafts](https://www.potterycrafts.co.uk/)

chapters/11-4-jumping-cracker.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+**Jumping crackers** or Jumping jacks are a type of [firecracker](Firecracker.html "Firecracker"). When lit each segment loudly pops (or bangs, depending on how much paper is used) and has a nasty habit to unpredictably jump around, (hence the name) changing direction with each bang.
+
+They were a common firework available in assortments in the 1930's from such companies as Brocks. They were subsequently banned for their unpredictable nature.
+
+## Materials
+
+**Kraft paper**
+
+You will need some kraft paper around 30-50 lbs in thickness.
+
+**Propellant**
+
+[Meal powder](Meal_-_Black_powder.html "Meal - Black powder"), a few percents of [dextrin](Dextrin.html "Dextrin") can be added, however not necessary.
+
+**Other**
+
+Fuse, preferably [visco fuse](Visco_fuse.html "Visco fuse"), but [black match](Black_match.html "Black match") or [touchpaper](Touchpaper.html "Touchpaper") can substitute. Also a paint brush, water, glue, and string is needed.
+
+|   |
+|---|
+||
+|## Method|
+|[![Click for larger image](images/thumb/8/88/Strips_1.jpg/151px-Strips_1.jpg)](Image_Strips_1.jpg.html "Click for larger image")<br><br>[![](skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png)](Image_Strips_1.jpg.html "Enlarge")<br><br>Click for larger image<br><br>A jumping cracker is made of a craft paper strip roughly 6 cm by 25cm. It is also possible to use a longer strip, this will result in more cracks (or "jumps"). First a line of wet [meal powder](Meal_-_Black_powder.html "Meal - Black powder") is applied with a small paint brush along the longer edge of the strip of kraft paper, which is then wound several times and glued.|
+|[![Click for larger image](images/thumb/e/ee/Strips_2.jpg/151px-Strips_2.jpg)](Image_Strips_2.jpg.html "Click for larger image")<br><br>[![](skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png)](Image_Strips_2.jpg.html "Enlarge")<br><br>Click for larger image<br><br>It looks much like quick match tube. One end is then bent, thus making an end chamber.|
+|[![Click for larger image](images/thumb/b/b8/Strips_3.jpg/151px-Strips_3.jpg)](Image_Strips_3.jpg.html "Click for larger image")<br><br>[![](skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png)](Image_Strips_3.jpg.html "Enlarge")<br><br>Click for larger image<br><br>The tube is now zig-zagged as many times as the length allows and a piece of fuse stuck into the opposite open end.|
+|[![Click for larger image](images/thumb/b/b7/Strips_4.jpg/151px-Strips_4.jpg)](Image_Strips_4.jpg.html "Click for larger image")<br><br>[![](skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png)](Image_Strips_4.jpg.html "Enlarge")<br><br>Click for larger image<br><br>A piece of twine or string is then tightly wound around the center and criss-crossed around each segment of the snake-looking device. It is then left to dry for a day or more.<br><br>When lit, each segment loudly pops (or bangs, depending on how much paper is used) and has a nasty habit to unpredictably jump around (hence the name) changing direction with each bang.|

chapters/99-0-chemicals.md

@@ -1,5 +1,10 @@
 # Chemicals
 
-A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. Some references add that chemical substance cannot be separated into its constituent elements by physical separation methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be simple substances, chemical compounds, or alloys.
+A chemical substance is a form of matter having constant chemical composition
+and characteristic properties. Some references add that chemical substance
+cannot be separated into its constituent elements by physical separation
+methods, i.e., without breaking chemical bonds. Chemical substances can be
+simple substances, chemical compounds, or alloys.
 
-In pyrotechnics specific chemicals are used for different effects, and some as helpers during manufacturing like solvents and binders.
+In pyrotechnics specific chemicals are used for creating different effects.
+Some chemicals are used as helpers during manufacturing like solvents and binders.

chapters/99-1-chemical-acetone.md

@@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
+## Acetone
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C3H6O$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Solvent
+
+**Description**
+
+Acetone is a very volatile flammable liquid that is commonly used as a solvent.
+Nitrocellulose, parlon and red gum dissolve very well in acetone. The solution
+of nitrocellulose is called nitrocellulose lacquer. Working with acetone can be
+difficult as compositions dry out very quickly. The evaporation of the acetone
+also causes cooling of composition, sometimes even below 0° C. This can result
+in condensation of water.
+
+**Sources**
+
+Acetone can usually be bought at any paint store. Making acetone at home is
+very impractical and unnecessary as it can be bought just about anywhere at low
+cost.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Acetone is very volatile and flammable. Acetone vapour is heavier than air and
+spreads over the ground. Only work with acetone outside or in a well ventilated
+area.

chapters/99-1-chemical-aluminium.md

@@ -0,0 +1,106 @@
+## Aluminium
+
+**Formula**
+
+$Al$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Fuel
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Aluminium metal
+
+**Description**
+
+Aluminium powder is one of the most often used fuels in pyrotechnics. A wide
+range of effects are possible with different types of powder, with differences
+in particle size, shape and impurities. The finest powders (e.g., German Dark
+and XD-30) can be 'airfloat', and are commonly used in flash compostions. Fine
+aluminium is also used in small percentages in some hobby-rocket fuels. Courser
+powders are generally used for sparkling effects. With these larger particle
+types, many effects--such as flitter, glitter, firefly and snowball--can be
+achieved.
+
+**Sources**
+
+Aluminium powder is sometimes sold as a pigment in (art) paint stores. This
+powder, known as 'aluminium bronze', is a flaky powder with a stearin coating.
+It is quite expensive but readily available and a source for small quantities.
+Aluminium grit and turnings can sometimes be found in machine shops were
+aluminium is processed. If fine enough this can be used as is, but it can also
+be ball milled into flakes. These flakes are quite reactive as they have a
+large surface area and can be used for several effects. Sanding aluminium
+chunks can also make aluminium powder. I've heard of people building a machine
+to do this, and the results can be quite good depending on the sanding paper
+used and the set-up. Another source of usable aluminium powder is to burn
+tetra-paks, and then powder the resultant aluminium residue in a ball mill.
+Aluminium powder can also be found inside an Etch A Sketch. In Boating stores,
+it can be found as a two component epoxy for protection of boat hulls against
+UV radiation, mesh size is questionable.
+
+**Dark (Pyro) Aluminium type**
+
+It is a very fine powder and dark grey in colour. Nominal mesh size is 200 but
+it contains particles of 2µ. There is a wide variety of uses for dark
+aluminium, for example: flash powders, star compositons, fountains, waterfalls,
+torches, flares, etc. For all this purposes it is generally used as a fuel.
+Many powders sold as "dark" aren´t really dark aluminium but the atomized type
+(often 63µ) and although the color of the former may vary it has to be dark
+grey and not light grey or even whitish grey (some of the best dark aluminium
+comes from Eckart Germany and this powder is nearly black in color = German
+Dark). Under the microscope it´s possible to identify atomized and dark powders
+quite well: the former are spherical in shape while the latter are irregular
+and angular. Dark alu is generally the most expensive of all the alu powders.
+
+**Atomatized Aluminium powder type**
+
+Atomized Aluminuim is increasingly used in fireworks although there are only
+limited uses for it (this is because spherical or spindle shaped particles are
+more difficult to ignite than a flake). In practice no material coarser than
+120 mesh can be used and commercial atomized powders are generally 300+ mesh
+and light grey to grey in colour. It is needed for glitter effects and other
+special stars, to give an example only.
+
+**Flake Aluminium type**
+
+There are mainly three different types of flake alu (all silver in colour). The
+first is "bronze" also known as paint grade aluminium. This fluffy powder is
+used for making paint and the particle size is very fine (sometimes less than
+2µ). Paint aluminium generally contains grease or stearine (the content varies
+from one to four percent by weight) which decreases its reactivity.
+Nevertheless aluminium bronze is easily obtained from an artist supply and
+produces quite good silver effects. It can be used wherever "bright" aluminium
+is mentioned in a composition. Generally it´s a dirty business to work with
+fatty aluminium. It only passes the mesh when accompanied by another material.
+The second flake aluminium is the real "bright" or "brilliant" powder we can
+subsitute with bronze for most purposes. Bright alu usually passes 120 mesh
+(nominal mesh Flake Aluminiumsize 120-200) and like "bronze" is very fluffy and
+leafing mass. The main difference to the latter is that brilliant powders
+contain less grease/stearine (0,5% by weight max) or are coated with another
+material which means that they aren´t as fatty to handle as bronze grades. They
+are used as a fuel for many purposes and to obtain silver effects. The third
+flake grade is called "flitter" which means flake powders of a larger mesh size
+than bright aluminium. It is sold as "fine", "middle" and "coarse"
+flake/flitter. Some people think that using flitter larger mesh variations are
+allowed. Sometimes this might be true but corresponding to the correct mesh
+size often makes the critical difference. As a rule of thumb fine flitter is:
+80-120 mesh, middle flitter is: 30-80 mesh and coarse flitter (=coarse flake)
+is 10-30 mesh.
+
+Aluminium Particle Types: <PICTURE>
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Aluminium is a neurotoxin that alters the function of the blood-brain barrier.
+Additionally small particles that are airborne act as tiny razors when they
+come in contact with lung or eye tissue, and a dust mask and goggles should be
+worn at all times when working with aluminium powder. Mixtures containing
+nitrates and aluminium powder are prone to heating up spontaneously and may
+ignite, especially when wet. This is caused by the reduction of the nitrate by
+aluminium, forming amides. These very basic compounds react further with
+aluminium powder in a very exothermic reaction that can cause spontaneous
+ignition. An ammonia smell is often produced in this reaction. Adding 1 to 2%
+boric acid to compositions containing nitrates and aluminium is common practice
+and will often prevent spontaneous ignition.

chapters/99-1-chemical-ammonium-chloride.md

@@ -0,0 +1,44 @@
+## Ammonium chloride
+
+**Formula**
+
+$NH4Cl$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Smoke colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Zalmiak
+
+**Description**
+
+Ammonium chloride is used in smoke compositions.
+When heated ammonium chloride decomposes to $HCl$ and $NH3$, both gasses. These recombine in the air to give a smoke consisting of fine particles of ammonium chloride.
+
+**Sources**
+
+Ammonium chloride solution is easily prepared by neutralising ammonia
+solution with hydrochloric acid. It is advised to use a slight excess of
+ammonia. That is to make sure no remaining acid will be present in the ammonium
+chloride obtained on evaporation and crystallisation. Otherwise traces of the
+acid solution may be enclosed in the crystals, possibly leading to spontaneous
+ignition of mixtures made with it.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Ammonium chloride based smoke is irritating to the eyes and lungs as
+it contains some remaining HCl and NH3. Ammonium chloride itself is not
+poisonous and is even used in some type of candy. But as with all fine powders
+a dust mask must be worn, and since ammonium chloride is irritating to the skin
+and damaging to the eyes, gloves and goggles are important. According to
+Shimizu, ammonium chloride forms an exception to the rule that ammonium
+compounds should not be mixed with chlorates. Due to the lower solubility of
+potassium chlorate (compared to ammonium chlorate) no ammonium chlorate should form. Use these mixtures with great caution (or avoid
+them) since it seems inevitable that small amounts of ammonium chlorate will
+still form. The lower solubility of potassium chlorate will make it the -main-
+product in a double decomposition reaction but not the -only- product. It is
+strongly advised not to mix with metal powders, specifically copper, because it
+will become extremely corrosive. Toxicity: Oral rat LD50 : 1650 mg/kg
+Investigated as a mutagen.

chapters/99-1-chemical-ammonium-dichromate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Ammonium dichromate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$(NH4)2Cr2O7$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Reducer? TBD
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Ammonium Pyrochromate
+
+**Description**
+
+Ammonium dichromate is sometimes used to suppress the reaction of magnesium in an ammonium perchlorate-type composition. In this case it is better than potassium dichromate, which is normally used for this purpose.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Ammonium dichromate is one of the most hazardous pyro chemicals.
+
+It is explosive as a standalone and listed T+ because of it´s nature as a potential carcinogene.
+
+It is absorbed through the skin, and is corrosive. Maximum safety measures necessary!!!

chapters/99-1-chemical-ammonium-nitrate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+## Ammonium nitrate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$NH4NO3$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Oxidiser
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+ammonia nitre
+
+**Description**
+
+Ammonium nitrate is an oxidiser. It is very hygroscopic and therefore not used
+very often in fireworks. It finds some use in composite propellants, but
+performance is not as good as perchlorate-based propellants.
+
+**Sources**
+
+Ammonium nitrate solution can be prepared by neutralising ammonia solution with
+nitric acid. It is advised to use a slight excess of ammonia. That is to make
+sure no remaining acid will be present in the ammonium nitrate obtained on
+evaporation and crystallisation. Otherwise traces of the acid solution may be
+enclosed in the crystals, possibly leading to spontaneous ignition of mixtures
+made with it. Large quantities of ammonium nitrate can also be cheaply bought
+as fertilizer. ammonium nitrate can be extracted from ferilizer with water
+leaving the ammonium sulfate(solid) behind. Ammonium nitrate can also be found
+as the active agent in instant cold packs.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Large masses of ammonium nitrate have been known to explode on some occasions
+although it is very insensitive. Smaller quantities are less likely to
+detonate. The risk of detonation increases when ammonium nitrate is molten or
+mixed with fuels such as metal powders or organic substances. Ammonium nitrate
+should never be mixed with chlorates as this may result in ammonium chlorate
+formation, possibly leading to spontaneous ignition. Mixtures of metal powders
+and ammonium nitrate are likely to heat up spontaneously and may ignite,
+especially when moist. This can sometimes be prevented by the addition of small
+amounts of boric acid (1 to 2%), but in general it is better to avoid these
+mixtures at all. The hygroscopic nature of ammonium nitrates makes this problem
+worse (also see aluminium). Toxicity: Oral rat LD50: 2217 mg/kg

chapters/99-1-chemical-ammonium-perchlorate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Ammonium perchlorate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$NH4ClO4$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Oxidiser
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Perchloric acid ammonium salt
+
+**Description**
+
+Ammonium perchlorate is an oxidiser used in a large number of compositions. Very impressive colour compositions can be made with it, but their burn rate is often too low for use in star compositions. For lance work and torches slow burning is an advantage and it is therefore commonly used in these items. Ammonium perchlorate is also used in composite rocket propellants, including the propellants used in the solid propellant boosters used for the space shuttle. The decomposition products of ammonium perchlorate are all gasses that are very beneficial for rocket propellants.
+
+**Sources**
+
+Ammonium perchlorate is usually bought from chemical suppliers or from dedicated pyro suppliers. Fine ammonium perchlorate powder is a regulated substance in most countries and cannot easily be bought or transported. Since it is such a useful chemical in pyrotechnics it can be worth the time and effort to try to prepare it at home. This can be done by first making sodium perchlorate followed by double decomposition with ammonium chloride (other ammonium compounds can be used). The preparation of sodium perchlorate is most easily accomplished by electrolysis. Chemical Destruction of any chlorates present in the sodium perchlorate must be performed BEFORE Ammonium Chloride is added as Ammonium Chlorate is very unstable. Amateur production of Ammonium Perchlorate via electrolysis is dangerous and not recommended.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Ammonium perchlorate can detonate by itself, although it is not very sensitive. Larger amounts and mixtures of ammonium perchlorate with metal powders or organic substances are more likely to detonate. Harmful if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through the skin. Toxicity: ORL-RAT LD50 4200 mg kg SCU-RAT LD50 1600 mg kg

chapters/99-1-chemical-anthracene.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Anthracene
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$C14H10$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Smoke compositions
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Blue or - if impure - green crystals gained by the distillation of coal tar. Anthracene is used in oxygen-negative compositions together with potassium perchlorate for black smoke production. It was excessively used in German smoke grenades during the second world war.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+TBD

chapters/99-1-chemical-antimony-trisulfide.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Antimony trisulfide
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Sb2S3$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Fuel in glitter compositions, fountain compositions and flash powder.
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Stibnite, Antimonite, Antimony sulfide/sulphide, Antimony (III) sulfide/sulphide
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Antimony trisulfide is a green powder. It is a fuel used in various white star compositions of the potassium perchlorate-base. It is sometimes used in glitter compositions, fountain compositions and [flash powder](Flash_powder.html "Flash powder"), however it is used less and less for flash powder as it is very poisonous and can usually be replaced by sulphur or completely omitted. Flash compositions containing antimony trisulfide are very sensitive to friction, shock, and static electricity.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Antimony trisulfide is sometimes sold as a pigment in (art) paint stores, but it is not commonly found these days due to it's toxicity. It can be made at home by fusing a [stoichiometric](Stoichiometric.html "Stoichiometric") mixture of [antimony metal](Antimony_metal.html "Antimony metal") and [sulfur](Sulfur.html "Sulfur"). This is a _very dangerous_ operation since lethally toxic fumes will form, and it should only be performed with proper safety precautions taken.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Xn, Xi
+
+Antimony trisulfide should never be used in any mixture containing chlorates, or else spontaneous ignition may occur. Mixtures with antimony trisulfide and perchlorates are very sensitive to friction and shock, and extra caution should be exercised when handling these mixtures. These mixtures are best avoided entirely. Wear proper protective clothing, including a dust mask and gloves, when working with compositions containing antimony trisulfide as it is very poisonous, and toxic to the kindnys and liver. Toxicity: ORAL (LD50): Acute: 7000 mg/kg [Rat] IPR-MUS LD50: 209 mg/kg. Most Antimony trisulphide that has been mined will contain a small Arsenic impurity which can contribute to toxicity depending on levels. At levels above 0.5% the material is classified as hazardous for shipping by air (IATA regulations 2010).

chapters/99-1-chemical-antimony.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+## Antimony
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Sb$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Fuel, Ball-mill media alloy.
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Antimony metal powder, Stibium, Antimony black, Regulus of antimony
+
+**Description**
+
+Milled antimony is a dark grey powder of 200+ mesh, but generally Sb can be bought as heavy, large size silver crystals that look and feel like pyrite. The powder is used for white fires (in lances etc.), to assure ignition (with Al) and as an important ingredient in glitter compositions although they do not necessarily employ antimony. Moreover antimony can be used to harden lead (employed e.g. for casting ball-mill media).
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+
+T, N, Xn, Xi
+
+Antimony in powdered form is harmful. Do not ingest. Prevent inhaling and contact with eyes and skin. Use proper safety equipments such as latex gloves, goggles and a dust mask or respirator. Toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic environment. Do not dispose of in the environment.
+
+[http://www.firebird.bc.ca/documents/MSDS/MSDSAntimony.pdf](www.firebird.bc.ca/documents/MSDS/MSDSAntimony.pdf "www.firebird.bc.ca/documents/MSDS/MSDSAntimony.pdf")
+
+[http://www.espimetals.com/msds's/antimony.pdf](www.espimetals.com/msds%27s/antimony.html "www.espimetals.com/msds's/antimony.pdf")

chapters/99-1-chemical-ascorbic-acid.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Ascorbic acid
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$C6H8O6$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Fuel for the composition Golden Powder, a black powder substitute.
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Vitamin C
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Ascorbic acid is an organic acid. Its appearance is white to light yellow crystals or powder. It is water soluble. In pyrotechnics it is primarily used as a fuel for the composition [Golden Powder](Golden_Powder.html "Golden Powder"), a black powder substitute.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+None, as it can be used as a food supplement.

chapters/99-1-chemical-barium-carbonate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Barium carbonate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$BaCO3$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Green and white colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Barium mono-carbonate, Carbonic acid barium salt
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Barium carbonate is used both in white and green color compositions. When chlorine donors are present in a composition a green color will result from the formation of BaCl+ in the flame. Without chlorine donors BaO will be formed which emits white light. Barium carbonate is convenient to use in chlorate based color compositions since it will neutralise residual acid which reduces the risk of spontaneous ignition.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Barium carbonate is cheaply available in kilogram quantities from ceramic supply shops. However, this material is often contaminated with small amounts of barium sulfide that are left over from the production process. Therefore, ceramics grade barium carbonate should never be used in mixtures incompatible with sulphides such as chlorate based mixtures. Barium carbonate is not easily made at home.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Xn, Xi
+
+Most barium compounds are very poisonous, especially the more soluble barium compounds such as the chlorate and nitrate. A dust mask should be worn at all times when working with barium carbonate. Unlike its soluble cousins which can be easily washed from the hands with lots of water the carbonate is not so easily removed and care to remove the powder from under finger nails is important before eating etc. Barium carbonate is soluble in stomach acid, and therefore a poison by ingestion.

chapters/99-1-chemical-barium-chlorate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Barium chlorate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$BaClO3$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Oxidiser and green colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Barium chlorate is used as an oxidiser in green color compositions and can produce intense greens. Fierce burning and high color purity compositions can be made with it.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Barium chlorate is usually purchased from chemical suppliers or from dedicated pyro suppliers. It can be made at home from sodium chlorate and barium chloride by double decomposition however purifying the product by recrystallising can be a lot of work because all traces of the sodium must be removed so as to not interfere with pure green colors. Barium chlorate can also be prepared from barium chloride by electrolysis in a process analogous to that used for preparing sodium chlorate.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Xi, O
+
+Barium chlorate is poisonous and a dust mask should be worn at all times when handling it. Barium chlorate should never be mixed with sulfur or sulfides or allowed to come in contact with mixtures containing sulfur or sulfides since this could result in spontaneous ignition. Sulfur reacts with water and air to form small amounts of sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid and chlorates react producing ClO2, an explosive gas that will ignite many organic materials on contact. Mixtures made with barium chlorate are often especially sensitive to friction and shock (even more so than potassium chlorate based mixtures) and should be handled with extra care.

chapters/99-1-chemical-barium-nitrate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+## Barium nitrate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$Ba(NO3)2$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Oxidizer
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Barium nitrate is used as an oxidizer in both white and green color compositions. When chlorine donors are present in a composition a green color will result from the formation of BaCl+ in the flame. Without chlorine donors BaO will be formed which emits bright white light. Barium nitrate is seldom used as the sole oxidizer in green color compositions. It is usually combined with perchlorate's to improve the color and increase the burning rate.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Barium nitrate may be prepared from nitric acid or ammonium nitrate and barium carbonate, which is available from ceramic supply stores. It can also be made from sodium nitrate and barium chloride by double decomposition and recrystallizing for purity. It should be done outside with an electric hotplate and stainless steel ware. Garden hose at the ready and nothing left outside for the kids to handle. Wash any spills into the ground with the hose until below the surface. Spread some ammonium sulphate fertilizer over and water some more. This will convert soluble barium salts to insoluble barium sulphate, which is harmless. Neutralize all waste solution with enough ammonium sulphate until white clouds of powder is no longer seen in the clear liquid then it is safe to dump onto ground.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+T, O, Xn, Xi
+
+Barium nitrate is poisonous. May be fatal if swallowed! A dust mask should be worn at all times when handling it. Mixtures of metal powders and barium nitrate sometimes heat up spontaneously and may ignite, especially when moist. This can usually be prevented by the addition of small amounts of boric acid (1 to 2%). It is advisable to avoid using water to bind such compositions. Red gum or shellac with alcohol or nitrocellulose lacquer are preferred binder and solvents (also see aluminium).
+
+Causes irritation to the respiratory tract. Symptoms may include coughing, shortness of breath. Systemic poisoning may occur with symptoms similar to those of ingestion. If ingested it may cause tightness of the muscles of the face and neck, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, muscular tremors, anxiety, weakness, labored breathing, cardiac irregularity, convulsions, and death from cardiac and respiratory failure. Estimated lethal dose lies between 1 to 15 grams. Death may occur within hours or up to a few days. May cause kidney damage. Causes irritation to skin. Symptoms include redness, itching, and pain. If it comes into contact with eyes it causes irritation, redness, and pain.

chapters/99-1-chemical-barium-sulfate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Barium sulfate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$BaSO4$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+High temperature oxidizer.
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Barium sulfate is used as a high temperature oxidizer in some green and white compositions, as well as being the oxidiser in the flash phase of some strobe compositions. It is also used as an additive in many firefly star compositions. Barium nitrate is more common in green pyrotechnic formulas, as it is a more amiable oxidizer and produces a superior colour.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Barium sulfate may be precipitated from a solution of a soluble barium salt, such as barium nitrate or chloride, and a sulfate. Magnesium sulfate and Potassium sulfate are both cheaply available as fertilizer and are convenient to use. Magnesium sulfate can be found at pharmacies and grocery stores under its common name as Epsom salt. The precipitated barium sulfate is a very fine powder which may be rinsed by repeated washings with hot water, settling and decanting. A final washing in the filter with acetone or ethanol will allow it to dry quickly, but is not a necessary step. Do not use sulfuric acid to precipitate barium sulfate as this may result in the inclusion of acid droplets in the precipitated particles which can lead to spontaneous ignition in chlorate compositions. There is some debate active regarding the safety of using sulfates in combination with chlorates regardless off acid contamination.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Xi
+
+Unlike many other barium compounds, barium sulfate is not very poisonous due to its low solubility in water. Indeed it is ingested in significant quantity regularly as a part of some medical procedures.

chapters/99-1-chemical-bentonite-clay.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+## Bentonite clay
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$(Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2·(H2O)n$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Bentonite Clay, Gumbrin, Akajo, Aquagel (gold), Asama, Askangel, Baroco, Yellow stone, Western bond, Natural gel, and many others...
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Bentonite is a white solid, mostly in dust or pellet form. It is generally used for nozzles, since it doesn't disintegrate quickly like cardboard or other products. Bentonite clay is a very important in making fireworks.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Bentonite is easy to obtain. Pottery stores sells it, but a cheaper alternative is "Clumping Kitty Litter," which is often Bentonite clay, and can be found in most supermarkets. One of the best brands to use is "Fresh Step," which (unlike many other types of clumping kitty litters) does not erode or crumble easily. In Australia ,rural store , Unimin "activegel" 20k bag used to seal leaking dam.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Xi
+
+Bentonite, in dust form, is suspected to be carcinogenic. Wear a dust mask or respirator when working with bentonite.

chapters/99-1-chemical-bismuth-subcarbonate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+## Bismuth subcarbonate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$(BiO)2CO3$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Bismuth oxycarbonate, Basic bismuth carbonate
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Bismuth subcarbonate is a fine white to yellow-white powder used mainly in Crackling microstars (Dragon eggs) as a substitution for Poisonous Lead tetraoxide and expensive Bismuth trioxide
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Bismuth subcarbonate can be purchased from Pyrotechnic suppliers.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Xi
+
+Bismuth subcarbonate is not particularly hazardous. However it is a skin, eye and respiratory system irritant. Wear gloves, dust mask, protection glasses, and do not ingest. Large ingested amounts can cause systemic bismuth poisoning with symptoms of headache, skin rashes, kidney damage, and rarely mild jaundice.

chapters/99-1-chemical-bismuth-yellow.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+## Bismuth yellow
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Bi2O3$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Bismuth(III)oxide
+
+**Description**
+ 
+It is used in crackling stars (Dragon's eggs) as a non-toxic substitute for toxic lead compounds. For this purpose it is mixed with magnalium and copper oxide.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Bismuth yellow can be found at various Pyro supplies. The major defect is the comparatively high price of bismuth.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xi
+
+Harmful by inhalation, in contact with skin and if swallowed. Wear suitable protective clothing when working with Bismuth yellow, such as dust mask and latex gloves.

chapters/99-1-chemical-boric-acid.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Boric acid
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$H3BO3$
+
+**CAS number**
+
+10043-35-3
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Boric acid is a white powder which is used as an additive to compositions containing aluminium and a nitrate. The metal powder can reduce the nitrate to an amide, which will react with the metal powder in a very exothermic reaction that can lead to spontaneous ignition of the composition. This process is often accompanied by a smell of ammonia and is most likely to occur with wet compositions. Addition of a few percent boric acid can often prevent this reaction from taking place since it neutralizes the very basic amides forming ammonia and a borate. It is also advisable to avoid using a water-soluble binder for these compositions. Using red gum or shellac with alcohol or nitrocellulose lacquer is safer. Boric acid is hygroscopic. The use of boric acid with magnesium or magnalium is not advised, as it actively attacks and corrodes these metals.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Boric acid is cheaply and in kilogram quantities available from ceramic supply shops. It is also sold in many drug stores at a somewhat higher price, but since only small quantities are needed the price is not really important. It is also sold in Homecenters as an effective insecticide for roachs (it may list the contents as orthoboric acid). 99% pure boric acid is available as "Roach away" in walmart.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+C
+
+Boric acid is really poisonous, and should be cleaned up very well after using.

chapters/99-1-chemical-calcium-carbonate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Calcium carbonate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CaCO3$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Precipitated chalk, Limestone, Calcite, Carbonic acid calcium salt.
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Colorless powder. It slowly reacts with NH4ClO4 in presence of moisture. Calcium carbonate is often used in toy fireworks as a cheap substitute for strontium salts, but the flame is reddish orange and not so beautiful as e.g. with SrCO3.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+A cheap source is the ceramics supply. Price is about $3/kg for the technical grade. you can also get it easely by powdering clean egg shells.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xi
+
+Dust may cause irritation to eyes, skin or respiratory system. Wear gloves, protection goggles and dust mask when manipulating fine powder.

chapters/99-1-chemical-calcium-nitrate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+## Calcium nitrate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Ca(NO3)2$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Norwegian saltpeter
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Calcium nitrate is the calcium salt of nitric acid. It's extremly hygroscopic, much more than Sodium nitrate. Because of that it's not used much in pyrotechnics.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Calcium nitrate is used as a fertiliser.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+O
+
+Calcium nitrate is an oxidiser, store separate from fuels and acids.

chapters/99-1-chemical-calcium-sulfate.md

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+## Calcium sulfate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CaSO4.x H2O$ where x= ~0.5 or 2
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+1. Hemihydrate = Plaster of Paris, Crystacal, Densite, Gypsum hemihydrate, Tiger stone
+2. Dihydrate = Gypsum, Alabaster
+
+**Description**
+ 
+The hemihydrate (x=~0.5) is commonly known as plaster of Paris. The dihydrate (x=2) occurs as a mineral known as gypsum. Calcium sulfate can be used as a high temperature oxidizer in orange color compositions. Excellent strobe compositions can be made with it.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Plaster can be used as is in strobe and exotic flash compositions, but is better to remove the water which is easily accomplished by heating. Plaster of Paris can be bought at hardware vendors and is often sold in hobby shops.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Calcium sulfate dihydrate may act as an eye or respiratory irritant. Wear safety glasses and dust mask.

chapters/99-1-chemical-charcoal.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+## Charcoal
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+Mixture with variable composition, generally of empirical formula $C8H4O$ 
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Alcohol, Undenatured Alcohol, Ethyl Alcohol, Dehydrated Alcohol, Spiritus
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Charcoal finds widespread use in pyrotechnics. Many types of charcoal exist, each with its own properties. It is a complex organic substance containing moisture, ash, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and a variety of volatiles. All of these elements have a vital use in fireworks. Charcoal made from willow or grapevine is considered great for black powder, while hardwood charcoals e.g. pine charcoal are commonly used for spark effects. The particle size and the process used to make the charcoal also play an important role in the quality of the charcoal for a specific purpose. Very fine charcoal floats in air and is therefore sometimes referred to as 'airfloat'.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Barbeque briquettes are mixed with clay and are not suitable for making black powder. Charcoal can be purchased from supermarkets, BBQ supply stores and directly from online pyrotechnic chemical suppliers. Charcoal can easily be prepared at home.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xi
+
+Fine charcoal dust is easily breathed in, and a dust mask should be worn when working with it. Freshly prepared charcoal can be pyrophoric even when not powdered and it must be allowed to stand for a day at least before it is used in any compositions.

chapters/99-1-chemical-chloroform.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Chloroform
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CHCl3$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Non-polar solvent
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+trichloromethane, methyl trichloride
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Chloroform is often used as a non-polar solvent. It is also used an anaesthetic, however it has a higher toxicity as well as being an environmental hazard. It is more commonly found in refrigerants in today's usage. And has a molar mass of 119.38g/mol. It has a melting point of -63.5°C, a boiling point of 61.2°C, and a density of 1.48g/cm^3, liquid. It's solubility in water is 0.8g/100mL at 20°C making it insoluble in water. It's flash-point is specified as non-flammable. It is a common solvent since it's usually nonreactive and miscible with most organic liquids where it may be volatile.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xn Xi, Carcinogen

chapters/99-1-chemical-chlorowax.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Chlorowax
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Chlorine donor
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Chlorowax is a type of chlorinated paraffin resin, in the form of a cream colored powder. It is used as a chlorine donor (contains 70% chlorine). Chlorinated paraffins are used as secondary plasticizers for polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Chlorinated paraffins are also used as extreme pressure additives in metal-machining fluids or as metal-working lubricants or cutting oils because of their viscous nature, compatibility with oils, and property of releasing hydrochloric acid at elevated temperatures. They are added to paints, coatings and sealants to improve resistance to water and chemicals, which is most suitable when they are used in marine paints, as coatings for industrial flooring, vessels and swimming pools and as road marking paints. Solvents are xylene, acetone and alcohol.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Unknown

chapters/99-1-chemical-clay.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+## Clay
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+Mixture with variable composition
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Different types of clay are used for nozzles, plugs or filler. Of all the types of clay in use bentonite and kaolin are probably the most common. Ground kitty litter is a cheap alternative and works well. Clay is a very important in making fireworks.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+As mentioned, kitty litter can be a cheap source of clay. A cheap variety of non-clumping kitty litter can be ground (mortar and pestle or ball mill) and sieved to obtain a fine powder which is easily pressed into a compact pellet. Bentonite and kaolin clay are also available from ceramic supply stores.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Clay is not particularly toxic or dangerous, but bentonite has shown to case cancer in animals but the evidence is unclear.

chapters/99-1-chemical-cmc.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## CMC
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$[C6H7O2(OH) x (OCH2COONa)y]n$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Binder
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, CMC sodium salt, Sodium cellulose carboxymethyl ether, Cellulose gum, Cellulose glycolic acid sodium salt, Sodium cellulose glycolate
+
+**Description**
+ 
+An off-white fine powder, readily soluble in water. Can be used as a thickening agent and/or binder, likewise dextrin. CMC is commonly used as an abbreviation for Sodium Carboxy-Methyl Cellulose
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Hardware stores, as wallpaper adhesive.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Fire hazard (dust), mild eye irritation, respiratory tract irritation, skin irritation/allergic dermatitis, non-toxic if ingested small amounts, do not induce vomiting.

chapters/99-1-chemical-colophonium.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Colophonium
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+Mixture of compounds, mainly abietic acid, $C20O2H30$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Binder, fuel-binder.
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Colophony resin, wood resin, pine resin
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Colophonium is an alcohol soluble resin which is sometimes used as a binder and as a fuel-binder combination . As such it is not used very often since it is expensive and doesn't have much adhesion capacity. Shimizu discerns two different types of colophony. One type is called wood resin and strongly smells of wood or somewhat like an aetheric oil. This is the common resin. Another type he names "combustion agent bl" in some of his books and this is sold as a natural phenolic resin called Vinsol, available at some pyro suppliers.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Artist paint stores often sell colophonium. It is also used by violin players, for the treatment of wooden floors and in the paper industry.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xi
+
+Colophonium is not particularly toxic or dangerous.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copal-gum.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Copal gum
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+Mixture of compounds
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Alcohol soluble binder
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+An expensive yellowish-brown resin collected from Copal trees in East Indonesia. It is most likely an obsolete binder\auxiliary fuel that was previous used by the Chinese or Indonesians. Copal gum is soluble in alcohol.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Copal gum is a non-carcinogenic material that is slightly flammable at high temperatures and has a health hazard rating of one.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-acetate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+## Copper acetate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Cu(CH,3COO)2$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Blue colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Cupric acetate
+
+**Description**
+ 
+It has recently been used in some blue star formulas as a replacement for Paris green. Although it is sometimes said that the color is equally good, this remains doubtful since the acetate does not contain arsenic, which is essential in mediating the chlorine transfer to the copper.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Simple synthesis
+
+Method 1: Cu(CH,3COO)2 can be produced by the reaction between Copper (II) oxide (CuO),Copper carbonate (basic) (CuCO3), and/or Copper hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) and Acetic acid (vinegar works). Evaporate to obtain crystals. These will be contaminated with Acetic acid, so dissolve and recrystallize them in distilled water to obtain purer product.
+
+Method 2: Dissolve copper metal in a warm Acetic acid by adding hydrogen peroxide or bubbling air through the solution. Evaporate to obtain crystals. These will be contaminated with Acetic acid, so dissolve and recrystallize them in distilled water to obtain purer product.
+
+Method 3: Dissolve Calcium carbonate in Acetic acid to form Calcium acetate. Add this slowly to a Copper sulfate solution to precipitate insoluble Calcium sulfate, leaving Copper acetate in solution. Filter and, if you want crystals, dry.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+TBD

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-acetoarsenite.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Copper acetoarenite
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Cu3As2O3Cu(C2H3O2)2$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Blue colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Paris Green
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Copper acetoarsenite is a green powder which is used in blue color compositions. It can produce great blues but it is also very poisonous and is used less and less for that reason. Today alternatives are available that will produce deep blues with less poisonous and cheaper compounds.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Copper acetoarsenite was used in the past as a pigment known as emerald green, kings green or vienna green. Nowadays it is no longer used and it is very hard to find a paint supplier that still has it. It can be prepared at home but extreme caution must be excercised since arsenic compounds are very poisonous. The following preparation originates from Shimizu: "300 g of copper sulphate is dissolved in 1000 ml water, to which 250 g of glacial acetic acid is added; This solution is named 'A'. Then 200 g of sodium carbonate and 200 g of arsenious acid (comment: note that this is an aqueous solution of arsenic-III-oxide, which is a strong poison) are added to 1000 ml water and boiled to form a solution, this is named 'B'. B is added little by little to A with constant stirring. Carbon dioxide gas is generated with active bubbling. When all the solution B has been added, it is boiled for about 30 minutes, when copper acetoarsenite appears gradually as green particles in the solution. The mother liquor is removed by vacuum filtration, and then green substance, copper acetoarsenite, is washed with water untill the sulphate ion dissapears; it is then dried. The yield is about 180 g."
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Copper acetoarsenite is very poisonous and should only be handled wearing a dust mask. Smoke from compositions containing this compound should not be inhaled. It is best to avoid the use of this compound altogether as several safer alternatives have become available in the past decades.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-benzoate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Copper benzoate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Cu(C6H5COO)2$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Copper benzoate is a fuel which is used in some blue color compositions. It is not used very often as it is more expensive than most alternatives.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Some specialised chemical vendors supply the material. Alternatively it can be manufactured without great difficulty via two different routes. In one, Benzoic acid and Copper carbonate are boiled in water until the reaction is complete. In the the other route, described in the following synthesis tutorial, the material is obtained from a solution of sodium or potassium benzoate and a soluble copper salt. When these solutions are added together a green precipitate of copper benzoate forms. This is filtered, thoroughly rinsed with hot water and left to dry.
+
+**Synthesis**
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Copper benzoate is poisonous and should be handled wearing a dust mask

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-carbonate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+## Copper carbonate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CuCO3.Cu(OH)2$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Malachite
+
+**Description**
+ 
+A beautiful light blue to deeper blue powder, which sometimes is used as a pigment. Used as a blue flame colorant in low temperature class compositions of the potassium (per)chlorate base or in compositons of the ammonium perchlorate base. The resulting blue is weaker than that using Paris green or CuSO4.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Pyro suppliers, ceramic supply store (used for glazing, ceramic grade copper carbonate sometimes might contain acidic impurities left from production and should therefore be tested).
+
+**Synthesis**
+
+Method 1: Dissolve a soluble copper compound (Copper acetate, Copper (II) chloride, or Copper sulfate for example) in as little distilled water as possible. Make a seperate solution of Sodium carbonate or Sodium bicarbonate in as little distilled water as possible. Mix these two solutions slowly and Copper carbonate will precipitate out. (if you are using Sodium bicarbonate there will be a lot of fizzing) Filter, wash with distilled water, and allow to dry without heating it. (sunlight is OK)
+
+Method 2: Add Copper hydroxide to Carbonic acid (tonic water) and Copper carbonate will precipitate out. Filter, wash with distilled water, and allow to dry without heating it. (sunlight is OK)
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xn
+
+TBD

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-chromite.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+## Copper chromite
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CuCr2O4$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Copper chromite is employed as a catalyst is certain rocket propellants. It is typically added in 1 to 5% quantities to whistle or composite rocket fuels which increases the burn rate. A range of other catalysts exist which can often be substituted for copper chromite. Examples are Iron oxide (red) and Manganese dioxide.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Copper chromite is very hard to make or obtain other than from dedicated pyro chemicals suppliers.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Copper chromite is poisonous and should be handled wearing a dust mask.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-i-chloride.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+## Copper (I) chloride
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CuCl$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Cuprous Chloride, Cuprous monochloride, Nantokite
+
+**Description**
+ 
+CuCl is a white or green powder, the green color comes from oxidized impurities. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. It is almost never used in pyrotechnics.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Synthesis**
+
+Method 1: Boil an aqueous solution of Copper (II) chloride together with powdered or granulated copper metal. The copper (I) chloride will form in the water as a green powder. Filter it and dry.
+
+Method 2: Make a solution of Copper sulfate. Then add Sodium chloride and Potassium metabisulfite. When the reaction is finished you will see white Copper (I) chloride on the bottom of container. Then decant the supernatent solution to leave Copper (I) chloride. Wash it with Ethanol (water works well too) two or three times to obtain a purer product.
+
+Method 3: Pure white Copper (I) chloride can be produced from red Copper (I) oxide (Cu2O)and a stochiometric quantity of Hydrochloric acid. This method also produces soluble Copper (II) chloride (CuCl2). Too much Hydrochloric acid will convert the CuCl to CuCl2. The two chlorides, if done well, can be separated by simple decantation. Wash with water then dry.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xn, N

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-ii-chloride.md

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+## Copper (II) chloride
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CuCl2$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Blue colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Cupric Chloride,Copper Chloride, Campfire Blue
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Not to be mistaken with Copper-I-oxide, copper II chloride is a yellow-brown solid which slowly absorbs moisture to form a blue-green dihydrate. It is used as a color producing agent in some blue star compositions. It is also employed to achieve a blue fire in campfires by soaking wood chips in a water/copper chloride solution and throwing them in the fire. Another way is to sprinkle the powder into the flame. The boilling temperature of CuCl2 is very low thus it can create great blue fire at low temperature.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Synthesis**
+
+Method 1: CuCl2 can be produced by the reaction between Copper (II) oxide (CuO),Copper carbonate (basic) (CuCO3), and/or Copper hydroxide (Cu(OH)2) and Hydrochloric acid. (Do not dilute the acid after dissolving otherwise Copper (I) Chloride will precipitate out) Evaporate to obtain crystals. These will be contaminated with HCl, so dissolve and recrystallize them in distilled water to obtain purer product.
+
+Method 2: Dissolve copper metal in a warm 15% Hydrochloric acid by adding hydrogen peroxide or bubbling air through the solution. Evaporate to obtain crystals. These will be contaminated with HCl, so dissolve and recrystallize them in distilled water to obtain purer product.
+
+Method 3 (Note: I have not tried this method. It will undoubtably be tricky to get right, but hopefully faster than the Method 2): Dissolve copper metal in FeCl3. Once as much copper as possible will dissolve, decant the solution. Evaporate this until light greenish blue CuCl2 crystals form, but not lime green FeCl2 crystals. These will be contaminated with FeCl2, so dissolve and recrystallize them in distilled water to obtain purer product.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+The gases produced from the burning of CuCl2 should be avoided. The compound itself is not very poisonous but careful handling is advisable.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-ii-oxide.md

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+## Copper (II) oxide
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CuO$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Cupric oxide, black copper oxide
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Copper oxide is a black powder employed in blue color compositions in combination with chlorine donors. It is also used in high temperature thermite mixtures. (like crackling microstars) Cupric oxide is used in the ceramic industry for imparting blue, green or red tints in glasses, glazes and enamels. It is occasionally employed for incorporation in mineral supplements for insuring against an insufficiency of copper in the diet of animals. Among its other uses is the preparation of copper ammonium hydroxide solutions for the rayon industry.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Copper(II)oxide is usually available from ceramic supply stores.
+
+**Synthesis**
+
+Method 1: Add a solution of sodium or potassium hydroxide to a hot solution of a soluble copper(II) compound (Copper sulfate or Copper (II) chloride for example). This will yield a blue gel-like precipitate of Copper hydroxide. Then bring the solution to a boil. The precipitate will turn black and powdery. Boil for a minute or two to complete the reaction and allow the black copper (II) oxide precipitate to settle. Then decant the liquid. Add some boiling hot water to the precipitate, stir and allow to settle again. Then decant and repeat 5 more times. This will remove all soluble impurities from the copper(II)oxide. Then the precipitate is filtered and allowed to dry.
+
+Method 2: Electrolysis of a oxidizing solution like chlorate solution yield copper (II) oxide as long as enough chlorate is present. The chlorate, sadly, convert back to chloride in this process. The result salt can be decanted and washed 3-4 times for purity. Other oxidizing soluble salts like bleach (Sodium hypochlorite) can be used. Once the oxidizing substance is depleted, the electrolysis will form Copper (I) oxide (Cu2O) which can be turned into Copper (II) oxide by roasting it in air.
+
+Method 3: Heat dry Copper hydroxide to 185oC, wet Copper hydroxide to 80oC, or Copper carbonate (basic) to 290oC.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Copper(II)oxide is harmful and should be handled wearing a dust mask.Copper(II) oxide is an irritant. It also can cause damage to the endocrine and central nervous system. Contact to the eyes can cause irritation and damage to the corneas, and potentially can cause conjunctivitis. Contact to the skin can cause irritation and discoloration. Ingesting cupric oxide can lead to central nervous system depression, liver and kidney damage, gastrointestinal damage, circulatory system failure or damage to the vascular system. Inhalation can lead to damage to the lungs and septum. Inhalation of fumes of cupric oxide can lead to a disease called metal-fume fever, which has symptoms similar to influenza. Prolonged exposure to cupric oxide can lead to dermatitis, and can cause a toxic build-up of copper in people with Wilson's disease. Handling copper(II) oxide should be done in well ventilated area, and care should be taken to avoid contact with the skin or eyes. After handling, one should wash thoroughly.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-oxychloride.md

@@ -0,0 +1,32 @@
+## Copper oxychloride
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$[3CuO.CuCl2•3.5H2O]$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Blue colorant
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Copper(II)oxychloride, tricopper chloride trihydroxide, copper chloride oxide hydrate
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Copper oxychloride is a green powder used as blue color agent, is a basic copper chloride and is usually manufactured either by the action of hydrochloric acid on copper metal or by the air oxidation of cuprous chloride suspensions. It has a number of applications, by far the most important being as an agricultural fungicide, for which purpose it is extensively employed in formulated form as dusts, wettable powders and pastes.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Pyro suppliers such as Skylighter.
+
+**Synthesis**
+
+Copper oxychloride can be produce easily at home from metallic copper. First, the electrolysis of copper anode in KCl/NaCl solution, will yield copper I oxide (red). The oxide is washed to remove alkali ion by repeated decantations. Then hydrochloric acid is mixed with the washed oxide in a very stochiometric quantity. Not enough is best and easier but yield impure end product. The solution is then bubbled through with air to convert CuCl to Oxychloride and CuCl2 following this reaction:
+
+6 CuCl + 3/2 O2 + 3 H2O → 2 Cu3Cl2(OH)4 + CuCl2
+This process can take more than 2 day with an aquarium pump. Be sure to recover and boil down CuCl2 produce too.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Harmful if swallowed or inhaled. Overexposure can lead to nausea, diarrhea, gastrointestinal distress, headaches, weakness, and possible liver and kidney damage. May cause irritation of eyes, nasal passages, throat and skin.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper-sulfate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+## Copper sulfate
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CuSO4.5H2O$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Copper sulfate, cupric sulfate, blue vitriol, bluestone, Chalcanthite
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Copper(II) sulfate is the chemical compound with the formula CuSO4. This salt exists as a series of compounds that differ in their degree of hydration. The anhydrous form is a pale green or gray-white powder, whereas the pentahydrate, the most commonly encountered salt, is bright blue. It is used as a blue flame colorant in ammonium perchlorate based compositions where it sometimes substitutes the more expensive Paris green. The resulting blue color is almost as good as with the latter. It is not easily scattered and not anywhere near as toxic. Small amounts of copper sulfate are contained even in mineral waters. Copper sulfate can be used as a minor oxidizer and in combination with finely powdered Mg can be used as a pressure sensitive composition due to the waters of hydration (this is very unstable though). Copper sulfate is not good for colored flash experimentation,though.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Pyro suppliers, paint stores, drugstore (in Europe at least it can be bought to keep your pool clean, works great for that purpose) is also available as a copper patina for stained glass. (must be evaporated as it is in a solution) may also be available as a fungicide for gardens depending upon the demographic in your area.
+
+**Synthesis**
+
+Copper sulfate can be produced by the use of a "piranha" solution.
+
+H2SO4+H2O2+Cu--->CuSO4x5H2O
+
+  
+Copper sulfate can also be synthesized by electrolysis of a solution of sulfuric acid with a copper anode, which forms H2 gas at the cathode and CuSO4 by the following reaction.
+
+Cu(s)+2H+(aq)--->Cu2+(aq)+H2 (g)
+
+The sulfate from the sulfuric acid is unchanged by this reaction, giving an end product of a solution of CuSO4. This must be done with an excess of sulfuric acid, since when the acid is depleted this will begin to form a mixture of Cu(OH)2 and CuO.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+N, Xn, Xi
+
+Due to its acidic nature it must not be used together with chlorates or phosphorus. Nonetheless it can be used with perchlorates or nitrates. Copper sulfate is toxic and used in lakes to kill sea weed.

chapters/99-1-chemical-copper.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Copper
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Cu$
+
+**Pyrotechnic use**
+
+Fuel
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Copper powder is a rusty orange colored fine powder which was used not so long ago in the manufacture of stars to achieve a green and blue colors. Atomized powder is particularly well suited to the strobe applications. It is no longer used today as it is replaced with chemicals like barium and copper oxides.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Copper powder can be purchased through craft or ceramic stores.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+The metal, when powdered, is a fire hazard. At concentrations higher than 1 mg/L, copper can stain clothes and items washed in water.

chapters/99-1-chemical-cryolite.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Cryolite
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Na3(AlF6)$
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Sodium Aluminum Fluoride, Sodium fluoaluminate
+
+**Description**
+ 
+Used as a non-hygroscopic yellow colouring agent in some star compositions.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Pyrotechnic supplies, such as skylighter.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+T, N
+
+_Acute_: Poison by ingestion. Large doses of overexposure cause severe nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal burning and cramp-like pains. Contact with skin and eyes may cause irritation. Inhalation can cause irritation to mucous membranes and respiratory tracts. 
+
+_Chronic_: May cause fluorosis, which is a condition affecting the bones and teeth.

chapters/99-1-chemical-dechlorane.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+## Dechlorane
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C10Cl12$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Chlorine donor
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Mirex
+
+**Description**
+
+Sold under the name Mirex, was used as a insecticide until banned. It can be used as an exotic Chlorine donor, which while effective, has been banned in fireworks by many authorities due to the toxicity.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Prolonged and repeated exposure to Mirex can result in damage to the liver and it can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion, and absorption via skin. Any contact should be avoided and appropriate safety precautions should be taken.

chapters/99-1-chemical-dextrin.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Dextrin
+
+**Formula**
+
+Mixture of polysaccharides.
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Binder (water soluble)
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+ TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Dextrin is one of the most commonly used binders in pyrotechnics as it is very cheap and readily available. It is water-soluble and can produce rock hard stars. Its cohesive power is weaker than that of SGRS anyway. Dextrin should not be used in a very damp climate as the stars tend to get wet rather than non-dextrin stars. Western pyrotechnics uses dextrin rather than SGRS, while the former is not popular in Japan and China.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Dextrin is easily prepared from starch. Potato and cornstarch will both work fine. The starch is spread out on a sheet in a layer about 1 cm thick and placed in the oven. The oven is then heated to 220°C (400°F) for several hours. The dextrin will turn slightly yellowish brown. One way to check if all the starch has been converted is to dissolve a small sample in boiling hot water and add a drop of KI3 solution (Lugol's iodine solution). A blue colour indicates presence of starch, which means the conversion hasn't completed yet. KI3 solution is conveniently prepared by dissolving a crystal of elemental iodine in a potassium iodide solution.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Dextrin is not particularly toxic or dangerous.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-dextrose.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Dextrose
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C6H12O6$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Fuel
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+In pyrotechnics, Dextrose is primarily used as a fuel in Candy propellant. It does not caramelize as readily as Sucrose, and it is somewhat less hygroscopic. It can be utilized as its monohydrate or it can be desiccated into it's anhydrous form. See Nakka's rocketry page for more information.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Dextrose is available as weightlifting dietary supplement.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Dextrose is not particularly toxic or dangerous.

chapters/99-1-chemical-diatomaceous-earth.md

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+## Diatomaceous Earth
+
+**Formula**
+
+Complex mineral which is rich in Silica (80-90%)
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+???
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+diatomite, celite or kieselguhr 
+
+**Description**
+
+A naturally occurring, soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that can be crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. It has a particle size ranging from more than 3 mm to less than 1 μm, but typically 10 to 200 μm.[1] Depending on the granularity, this powder can have an abrasive feel, similar to pumice powder, and has a low density as a result of its high porosity. The typical chemical composition of oven-dried diatomaceous earth is 80–90% silica, with 2–4% alumina (attributed mostly to clay minerals), and 0.5–2% iron oxide.
+
+Diatomaceous earth consists of the fossilized remains of diatoms, a type of hard-shelled microalgae, that have accumulated over millions of years.
+
+```
+Name: Fence-post prime
+
+Type: Prime
+Source: Eugene Yurek
+
+Potassium Nitrate             65
+Charcoal Airfloat             12
+Sulfur                        10
+Diatomaceous Earth             5
+Silicon (325 mesh)             5
+Charcoal, spruce, ball milled  3
+
+Named for it's purported ability to light wet fence posts in a hurricane. The silicon burns and forms molten glass.
+
+I don't want to copy and paste the comments from passfire here but I'll try to cover a few bases.. The DE makes this stuff pretty fluffy. Use about 1/3 less than you would with a regular prime. A layer 1-1.5mm thick is all you should ever need. If your stars are ridiculously difficult, up the silicon to no more than 10%.
+
+Source: https://www.amateurpyro.com/forums/topic/2676-fence-post-prime/
+```
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Wikipedia
+
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomaceous_earth

chapters/99-1-chemical-ethanol.md

@@ -4,6 +4,10 @@
  
 $C2H5OH$
 
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Solvent
+
 **Synonyms**
  
 Alcohol, Undenatured Alcohol, Ethyl Alcohol, Dehydrated Alcohol, Spiritus
@@ -18,4 +22,4 @@ Chemically pure ethanol can be quite expensive due to increased tax, unless it i
 
 **Hazards**
  
-Ethanol is flammable and volatile. Ethanol vapour is heavier than air and spreads over the ground. Provide adequate ventilation when working with ethanol.
+Ethanol is flammable and volatile. Ethanol vapour is heavier than air and spreads over the ground. Provide adequate ventilation when working with ethanol.

chapters/99-1-chemical-ferro-silicon.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Ferro-silicon
+
+**Formula**
+
+Sometimes written $FeSi$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+TBD
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Alloy of iron and silicon. Comes as a powder with a black grey metallic lustre. Reacts with and dissolves in alkali solution generating hydrogen gas. Shows no reaction with acids. Mainly used as fuel in red thermite (high temperature ignition composition), where the heat of combustion generally increases with the Si content. Commercial standards discern 6 classes of the material, of which class one shows the highest Si-content (88-93%) and is therefore recommended for fireworks use. Differences between classes are quite large: e.g. class 3 shows only about 45% of Si.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+TBD

chapters/99-1-chemical-ferro-titanium.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Ferro-titanium
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+Fe-Ti (60%-40%)
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Spark effect
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+An alloy of iron and titanium. Granular, silvery powder. Gives yellow-white sparks. Used in fountain, or palm-tree comet-type star compositions.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Pyrotechnic supplies, such as skylighter.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+See iron and titanium.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-glass.md

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+## Glass
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Striker composition ingredient
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+It finds only little use in pyrotechnics, where it is generally contained in striker compositions (to provide initial energy caused by friction). Glass powder is an important ingredient in safety matches.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Glass powder, or dust, is an irritant to the lungs and eyes. The same precautions for asbestos apply. Glass powder in the lungs will cause scaring and silicosis, an incurable and painful affliction. Respirator and eyes goggles required.

chapters/99-1-chemical-graphite.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Graphite
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+TBD
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Graphite is a black and shiny powder or rods. Used for glazing black powder grains to give it a better flow, or as dry lubricant for different tools. Also used to opacify rocket fuel grains. The opacifier accelerates the rate of surface burning and prevents infrared energy from penetrating the propellant grain and causing it to explode.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+TBD

chapters/99-1-chemical-guanidine-nitrate.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Guanidine nitrate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$NH:C(NH2)2.HNO3$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Oxidizer
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+White crystals. It is quite stable against shock and friction and not hygroscopic. It is used in some strobe compositions where it is decomposed by copper salts or other compounds acting as catalysts. Some smoke formulas employ guanidine nitrate. It also found use in toy rocket fuels such as JETEX and may be found in some explosives. It is quite attractive because it has a high gas output, low flame temperature, and non-toxic combustion products.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+
+O, Xn
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-gum-arabic.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Gum arabic
+
+**Formula**
+
+Mixture of compounds
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Binder
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+This gum resin, also known as Acacia gum, is obtained mainly from acacia wood and is produced in Many hot dry areas of the world, mainly Sudan, the rest of the Horn of Africa, Southern Arabia, and India. The resin occurs in colourless, yellowish or brown pieces, and is largely protein based. Gum Arabic is soluble in water and alcohol, or a mix of the two. Gum Arabic solutions tend to ferment during storage and become acidic. Therefore they are generally consumed within one day after manufacture while old adhesives are discarded for safety reasons. It is usual to employ the gum with gunpowder type compositions only, and is generally thought to be the best adhesive for Black match and Quick match manufacture.
+
+In strength of binding, Gum Arabic is superior to most other binders. Stars made with three to five per cent Gum Arabic are suitable for hard flash breaks.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Gum Arabic may be bought in artistic painting supply stores alongside other binders like Red gum. It can also be obtained from stores that supply conservators - like shellac or red gum, it is sometimes used to seal wood surfaces. Gum Arabic is most commonly used in gummy sweets and soft drinks, though extraction from a can of coke is a process that the author does not think would be effective, and has never heard of being attempted.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Gum Arabic is not particularly dangerous or toxic under normal conditions, but Gum Arabic solutions tend to ferment during storage, and become acidic. Therefore, they are generally consumed within one day after manufacture while old adhesives are discarded for safety reasons. Due to this, Gum Arabic is not to be used with compositions containing chlorates, under any circumstance.

chapters/99-1-chemical-hexachlorobenzene.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Hexachlorobenzene
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C6Cl6$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Chlorine donor
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+HCB
+
+**Description**
+
+Hexachlorobenzene (HCB) has been used as a powerful chlorine donor in colour compositions. It is soluble in diethyl ether, benzene, ethanol and chloroform. It can not serve as a binder.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+The use of HCB must be avoided.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+HCB is very toxic to aquatic organisms and it may cause long term adverse effects in the aquatic environment. Hexachlorobenzene has a half life in the soil of between 3 and 6 years. Biomagnification up the food chain does occur.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-hexachloroethane.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Hexachloroethane
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C2Cl6$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Chlorine donor, Smoke compositions
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Carbon hexachloride
+
+**Description**
+
+It is a colourless material that slowly sublimes at room temperature producing a special odour. Carbon hexachloride would be a strong chlorine donor (about 90% chlorine) but due to its volatility it is not often used to enhance the flame of colored stars or flares. Together with zinc powder, Al or Mg it finds some use in white smokes though which are sealed in a tin case where volatility is no problem. The material on the market is larger grains from 3-5mm and these should be crushed to pass 20 mesh before use in smoke compositions. Both material and compositions containing HCE must be kept sealed after mixing.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xn, N
+
+Note that HCE is listed as a contact poison, which can enter the body through inhalation, food or skin contact! Take the necessary precautions (breathing mask, gloves). The volatile gases can lead to absence!

chapters/99-1-chemical-hexamine.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Hexamine
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$(CH2)6N4$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Fuel
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Hexamethylenetetramine, Urotropine
+
+**Description**
+
+Crystals of hexamine burn with a yellow flame and the material has been used in small indoor fireworks employing magnesium and lithium salts. In contrast to metaldehyde formerly used for this purpose it does not produce poisonous formaldehyde when lighted indoors. Lancaster states that "hexamine would be quite useful as a fuel, but does not appear to have found much application, possibly because of the cost." (Fireworks PaP p.111) Some armys employ ESBIT fuel to allow the soldiers to cook their meals while in field. Hexamine is the main ingredient. Soluble in water.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+In Europe Hexamine is regulated by law Regulation (EU) 2019/1148 and not easy available.
+
+Could possibly be replaced with charcoal or lactose when not available or cost is a problem.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+F, Xn

chapters/99-1-chemical-hydrochloric-acid.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Hydrochloric acid
+
+**Formula**
+
+$HCl$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+None
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Hydrogen chloride, muriatic acid
+
+**Description**
+
+HCl is a gas which when dissolved in water is an acid by dissociation producing H3O+ and Cl-. It can be used in the synthesis of Ammonium chloride or other chloride salts. Is a strong halogenating compound, and one of the strongest acids that normal people can aquire.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Hydrochloric acid is available in hardware stores and paint shops in litre quantities to a reasonable price, it is used as a concrete cleaner as it chlorinates the calcium carbonate into water soluble Calcium Chloride and hydrogen gas.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Hydrochloric acid is an irritant in low concentrations, but becomes more corrosive in concentrations above 25%. In solutions with high concentrations, some of the hydrogen ions and chlorine ions, which are separated while dissolved, combine and rise out of the solution as a gas. This gas almost immediately dissolves in the water in the air, and appears as a white mist. This mist is corrosive to the skin and unhealthy to breathe in. If the air is very dry, it will come out as a gas but not be visible as mist, this is still dangerous though as it turns back to acid as soon as it gets in contact with the water in your body.
+
+A well ventilated workshop and a chemical resistant labcoat is recommended for the use of HCl(a) as the gas fuming off will replace the hydroxyl groups of cellulose (cotton, that means clothing) with chlorine causing degradation and further fuming of HCl off the clothing contaminated. It must be noted that if clothing is contaminated with HCl you must not wash it as it will dissolve the clothes in the wash.

chapters/99-1-chemical-iron-oxide-black.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Iron oxide (black)
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Fe3O4$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Oxidizer (high temperature)
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Black Iron Oxide is a black powder. It is sometimes used in thermite however thermite produced using black iron oxide is less powerful than thermite that uses red iron oxide. It is also a catalyst and can be used in R-Candy. It is magnetic.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+
+It is a skin and eye irritant and gloves and eye protection should be warn when handling.
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-iron-oxide-red.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Iron oxide (red)
+
+**Formula**
+
+$Fe2O3$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Catalyst
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Red iron oxide is used as a catalyst in composite and whistling rocket propellant and Candy rocket propellant formulations. It is also added to some glitter formulations and used for thermite, a mixture that produces enormous amounts of heat, forming molten iron. Due to it's catalytic properties it is also added to primes, and even coloured star compositions to increase their ignitability and burn rate.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Common rust is not iron oxide. It is a mixture of oxides and hydroxides. A cheap source for red iron oxide is the ceramics supply shop. It is also bought as cement color in hardware stores for about $5.00 a pound.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Red iron oxide is not particularly toxic or dangerous. It does however stain surfaces and textiles.

chapters/99-1-chemical-iron.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Iron
+
+**Formula**
+
+$Fe$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Yellow spark effect
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Iron powder is used for spark effects, mainly in fountains and sparklers. It produces golden yellow branching sparks. Not every iron alloy will work equally well. Iron alloys with a high carbon content generally work best. Stainless steel will produce hardly any sparks.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Iron turnings can often be had for free from places were iron is used for construction. Drilling, sawing etc produces a powder with wide range of particles. This powder is treated with mineral oil to remove oil and grease, sieved, and then coated with linseed oil.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Iron particulates of micron-submicron size are pyrophoric (may spontaneously ignite on contact with air). Care should be exercised with this particularly reactive form of iron. Iron needs to be protected before use in pyrotechnic compositions. Otherwise it will corrode and render the composition useless or even dangerous. Iron containing compositions are generally best kept dry and not bound with water soluble binders. Iron can be coated with linseed or tung oil. The latter was used in ancient China (and may still be used today). Linseed is very convenient to use and easy to obtain. Blackpowder-like compositions (ie Charcoal/sulfur/saltpeter based) with added metal, such as they are often used in fountains, are more sensitive than the composition without added metal. Extra caution, especially when pressing or ramming, should be excersised.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-isopropyl-alcohol.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Isopropyl alcohol
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$CH3CHOHCH3$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Solvent
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+IPA, 2-propanol, isopropanol
+
+**Description**
+
+Isopropyl alcohol is a common name for propan-2-ol, a colourless, flammable chemical compound with a strong odor. Isopropanol is the main ingredient in rubbing alcohol and is used as a disinfectant, and is a common solvent. In pyrotechnics it is commonly mixed with water. The isopropanol alcohol reduces the surface tension in a mixture and makes the water actually "wetter". This increases the absorption rate much faster than it would with just plain water.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+It can be easily bought from supermarkets, pharmacies, and chemists in the form of isopropanol rubbing alcohol.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Isopropyl alcohol is flammable. It should be kept away from heat and open flame. Isopropyl alcohol is oxidized by the liver into acetone. Symptoms of isopropyl alcohol poisoning include flushing, headache, dizziness, CNS depression, nausea, vomiting, anaesthesia, and coma. Use in well-ventilated areas and use protective gloves while using. Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, or absorption.
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-lactose.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Lactose
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C12H22O11.H2O$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Fuel
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Lactose is extensively used as a combustion agent in colored smoke compositions containing organic dyes. Sometimes it finds use also as a fuel in blue color compositions, where cool burning is required.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Lactose is not particularly toxic or dangerous.

chapters/99-1-chemical-lampblack.md

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+## Lampblack
+
+**Formula**
+
+Mixture of carbon 
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Streamer spark effect
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Pine black, oil black, pine soot
+
+**Description**
+
+Lampblack is obtained by the incomplete burning of pine wood and the resulting very fine powder usually passes 350 mesh. The work with it is known for its extreme dirtyness. Due to its fineness it easily spreads into every mixture, even at small amounts. It might be used as a component of BP and the force of the resulting powder is large. Small amounts of lampblack are included in various compositions to enhance ignitability and effect. Lampblack is one of the main components of flower pots and moreover contributes to the Senko Hanabi effect. Some of the best and longest lasting (japanese quality) golden streamer stars can be manufactured with it. Lampblack is not easily damped and therefore it is advisable to add a small amount of alcohol (reduces surface tension) to make moistening easier. The major defect is its high price.
+
+It must be noted that lampblack adheres to the mesh and consequently can´t be sieved on its own. Nonetheless it passes the mesh well when accompanied by other materials used for the same composition. In this case it spreads quite well into every mixture and therefore small amounts of lampblack are employed in various star compositions for ease of ignition.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Pyro suppliers only
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Do not breathe as it is a suspected carcinogen.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-lead-tetraoxide.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Lead tetraoxide
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$Pb3O4$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Lead minium, Minium, Triplumbic tetroxide, Red lead, Lead tetroxide
+
+**Description**
+
+Lead tetraoxide is primarly used to make crackling microstars. The composition is very sensitive, explosive and poisonous. It is in fact one of the most dangerous compounds used commonly in modern pyrotechnics. Alternative crackling mixtures e.g. based on bismuth trioxide exist (which is less poisonous), but the high price of bismuth trioxide generally restricts its use. Together with ferro-silicon minium is the original "red thermite".
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Lead tetraoxide may be prepared from a solution of lead nitrate and sodium hydroxide. Note that the procedure involves extremely corrosive and poisonous chemicals and should only be attempted by those who have access to (and know how to use) the right equipment and can handle the waste properly. Prepare a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide by dissolving 300 grams of sodium hydroxide in water. The solution will heat up during this. To prevent it from boiling suddenly add only small portions at a time. When all has dissolved, allow it to cool down to room temperature. Dissolve 50 grams of lead nitrate in 200 ml of water, and slowly add the sodium hydroxide solution to this solution while stirring continuesly. A white precipitate will form first, which will turn orange when all sodium hydroxide solution has been added. Stir this solution well for another hour, and then allow the lead tetraoxide to settle. Carefully decant the supernatant, add boiling hot water to the residue, stir, allow to settle and decant again. Repeat this 5 more times. Then filter and rinse the lead tetraoxide in the filter several times with hot water.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+T, N
+
+Lead tetraoxide, like most lead compounds, is extremely poisonous. Lead is an accumulative neurotoxin and extreme care should be taken to prevent direct contact. Lead tetraoxide may be absorbed by inhalation and ingestion. Wear a respirator, gloves, and protective clothing.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-linseed-oil.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Linseed oil
+
+**Formula**
+
+TBD
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Metal powder coating
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Flax seed oil
+
+**Description**
+
+Linseed oil is made from the seed of the flax plant. Available in many forms: Brown, boiled, raw and refined. It is used to coat various metal powders or filings you want to keep from oxidizing or reacting with other chemicals. The coating preserves the metal with a varnish coating. Adding some solvent will help distribute the oil and ensure complete coating. You must screen your metals while drying, otherwise it will turn into hard clumps. The cheapest form (usually boiled) is suitable for fireworks.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Linseed oil products are available at paint and hardware stores.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Rags dampened with boiled linseed oil are a fire hazard, because they provide a large surface area for oxidation of the oil. The oxidation is an exothermic reaction which thermal runaway accelerates as the rags get hotter. Such rags should be washed, soaked with water or incinerated to avoid unexpected spontaneous combustion.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-magnalium.md

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+## Magnesium
+
+**Formula**
+
+Alloy of magnesium and aluminum, usually 50:50. Sometimes written: $MgAl$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Fuel
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Magnalium is a very brittle alloy of magnesium and aluminum. Some common uses are in for spark effects, in strobing compositions and in crackling stars. Lancaster gives some typical mesh sizes for different uses: Magnalium used for strobe stars, for spark effects or to enhance other stars has to be finer than 120 mesh, while for use in crackling microstars it has to be something between 30 and 50 mesh. The coarser type is generally harder to find commercially. Magnalium can also be substituted into most mixtures that aluminium finds use in. These include; thermite and flashpowder. Again, avoid unstable combinations, and remember that MgAl is very reactive.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+The best sources for magnesium are sacrificial anodes. These find use in water cylinders, and general rust prevention. Aluminum is found easily as scrap which can be melted down. Magnalium can be made at home, but it is best to become familiar with molten metals, so prior experience with aluminum(or other foundry work)is recommended. Plan well and prepare yourself for working with molten metals that may ignite if you plan to make it at home. If the metal ignites expect it to burn very brightly and hot. Explosions will not occur if you restrict production batches to under 600g, and if common sense is used. Do it outside and away from anything flammable. If it ignites, pour sand or dirt onto it. However, if it is overly large, it might be best to let it burn out. Never use water. A sand/dirt bed around the smelting area is a cheap and wise precaution, as molten MgAl will burn through asphalt and damage concrete. Don't look directly into the burning metal as it may damage your eyes. Start by melting aluminum in a steel can(baked bean size is preferrable).
+
+The molten metal should be covered with a blanket of inert gas. In this case neither nitrogen nor carbon dioxide will function as an inert gas. It is not best to get a cylinder of argon gas at a welding supply store, as it wont be needed whatever way you look at it. It will be useless unless blanketing the MgAl inside the can(it will blow away on the ground)and it isnt cheap for the canister, or argon. You can use sulfur or charcoal, but these are usually not needed unless it starts burning out of control(which is shouldnt, because the oxide layer is generally thick, and there is scarcely enough oxygen in the can to allow further burning). Sulfur will make you MgAl smell like rotten eggs, along with causing a nasty flare up the first time it is applied. One pinch is all that is needed. The best choice is to keep powdered charcoal at hand, and to fashion a reusable lid for the can to stop oxygen getting in. The bottom of a larger can is useful for this, and can easily be reused.
+
+Using an electric furnace for the melting is very convenient and allows good control over the temperature. Alternatively, a cheap charcoal chimeny or charcoal furnace with a steel can in it will work too(a can is best, as you can peel it away from the ingot when done, using tinsnips). Be careful if using a aluminum furnace, as having the can hotter than orange can cause cracks in the can, allowing molten MgAl to pour into the coals(once it has started leaking, you have little hope in stopping it, so take it out and place it into a pail of sand. Regulating the air flow on the charcoal is the best solution. To the molten aluminum, magnesium is added in solid form. The melt should be stirred from time to time. When all the magnesium has melted,the can is removed and the melt is allowed to solidify.
+
+Once out of the furnace it is wise to sprinkle a layer of powdered charcoal on top of the melt to act as an inert blanket to stop oxygen meeting the melt. When cool, it is then easily crushed up in smaller chunks with an heavy hammer. These chunks are ground in a blender or coffee grinder. It can also be ball milled into a fine powder using steel media but this can be dangerous since the metal powder can become pyrophoric(if ball milled for overly long). Ceramic alumina media comes in handy here, as it does not spark.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Magnalium dust is harmful and a dust mask should be worn when handling fine dust. Mixtures containing nitrates or ammonium perchlorate and magnalium sometimes heat up and may ignite spontaneously, especially when moist. Coating magnalium with linseed oil will prevent reaction with nitrates, but this treatment does not protect the magnalium from ammonium perchlorate. Only treating the magnalium with potassium dichromate will prevent this reaction. This is done by boiling the magnalium in a 5% potassium dichromate solution. Adding fine potassium dichromate powder to such compositions may also help. Take note that military flash bangs use Ammonium perchlorate and magnesium mixtures, but making these is only to be attempted by experienced pyrotechnicians.

chapters/99-1-chemical-magnesium.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Magnesium
+
+**Formula**
+
+$Mg$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Fuel
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Magnesium powder is used in a wide variety of compositions, both for spark effects and 'normal' fuel purposes. Relatively coarse magnesium is used for spark effects. In flares and some bright colored star compositions it functions as a normal fuel. It is superior to aluminum in color compositions since MgCl2 and MgO are more easily vaporised than the corresponding aluminum compounds. This reduces the amount of black-body radiation and improves the color purity.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Magnesium powder is available from dedicated pyro suppliers. Making magnesium at home is very difficult. Magnesium can be bought in boating supply stores. It is used to prevent corrosion of a ships hull. For that purpose it is welded to the hull. The lower position of magnesium in the electrochemical series will make the magnesium corrode before the steel will. Making such a block of magnesium into a fine powder will not be easy. Filing or cutting and ball milling may be tried. Ball milling of metals can be dangerous however since the metal can become pyrophoric. However, if a person is to drill a lot of holes and collect the shavings, these may be ball milled quite easily.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+F
+
+Magnesium dust is harmful and a dust mask should be worn when handling fine dust. Mixtures containing nitrates, chlorates or perchlorates and magnesium sometimes heat up and may ignite spontaneously, especially when moist. Coating magnesium with linseed oil will prevent reaction with most oxidizers, but this treatment does not protect the magnesium from ammonium perchlorate. Only treating the magnesium with potassium dichromate will prevent this reaction. This is done by boiling the magnesium in a 5% potassium dichromate solution. The magnesium will turn brown when this is done. Adding fine potassium dichromate powder to such compositions may also help.

chapters/99-1-chemical-manganese-dioxide.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Manganese dioxide
+
+**Formula**
+
+$MnO2$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Catalyst
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Manganese dioxide can be used as a catalyst in composite and whistling rocket propellant formulations. A thermite-like mixture can also be made with it. The manganese dioxide thermite burns more slowly than the iron oxide based mixture with a bright white glow.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Mangese dioxide can be obtained from old batteries or from the ceramics supply store. The mangese dioxide in batteries is mixed with several other compounds from which it must be separated. An easy, though messy way to do this is as follows: Find a couple of depleted carbon-zinc batteries. Only carbon-zinc type batteries will do. Do not use other types such as rechargable or lithium based batteries. These, especially the rechargable ones, contain extremely dangerous and/or poisonous compounds such as cadmium, mercury and metallic lithium. Carbon-zinc batteries may contain small amounts of mercury as well, especially the older types, so precautions should be taken to prevent skin and eye contact and to prevent breathing or swallowing of dust. So: wear your dust mask, glasses, gloves and old clothing. Then carefully take the battery apart. You'll find a greyish white (zinc oxide) or metallic coating (zinc metal) inside, depending on wheter the battery is empty or not. This surrounds a black, sometimes wet, mass. This black stuff contains among other things the mangese dioxide. Peel the coating off and save the black mass. There is also a black rod inside attached to the anode. This is a graphite rod and can be saved for chlorate (and maybe perchlorate) preparations. We'll assume you use 2 batteries from here on. (if not, adjust amounts accordingly). Place the black mass in 200 ml of 30% hydrochloric acid. The manganese dioxide will slowly dissolve, giving off chlorine gas. Chlorine gas is dangerous: it attacks the lungs and is poisonous. Do this outside or better yet: in a fume hood if you have one. Allow the manganese dioxide several days to dissolve. The solution is then filtered which should yield a clear solution of manganese(III)chloride. In a separate container dissolve 200 grams of sodium hydroxide in a liter of bleach. Add the manganese(III)chloride solution slowly to the bleach/sodium hydroxide solution. This results in a brown precipitate of manganese dioxide which is filtered, rinsed several times with boiling hot water and dried.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Mangese dioxide is poisonous and leaves brown stains on glassware etc. The stains can be removed with dilute hydrochloric acid (of course, only when the stained object is not attacked by it).

chapters/99-1-chemical-mercury-chloride.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Mercury chloride
+
+**Formula**
+
+$Hg2Cl2$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Chlorine donor
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Calomel, Mercurous chloride.
+
+**Description**
+
+Mercury(I)chloride is a dense yellowish-white solid that was once used as a chlorine donor for enriching colour, but owing to it's high toxicity and relatively low chlorine content (15%) when compared to the likes of polyvinyl chloride and parlon, it hasn't been widely used in around 40 years.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+TBD
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Xn
+
+Mercury(I)chloride is toxic and precautions should be taken to minimise exposure by any route.

chapters/99-1-chemical-methanol.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Methanol
+
+**Formula**
+
+$CH3OH$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Solvent
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Wood alcohol, methyl alcohol, hydroxymethane, carbinol
+
+**Description**
+
+Methanol is used as a solvent, much in the same way ethanol is used. Red gum and shellac, two common binders both dissolve in methanol. Methanol/water mixtures are also often used since the methanol increases the 'wetness' of the water (it reduces the surface tension of the water) and reduces the solubility of common oxidisers.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Methanol is often more cheaply and easily available than ethanol because it is toxic and no extra taxes are charged for it. It finds use in a certain type of camping stove and can often be bought in camping supply stores.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Methanol is flammable, volatile and toxic. Methanol vapour is heavier than air and spreads over the ground. Provide adequate ventilation when working with methanol

chapters/99-1-chemical-methyl-ethyl-ketone.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C4H8O$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Solvent
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+M.E.K. 
+
+**Description**
+
+MEK (methyl ethyl ketone), also known as butanone, is a manufactured organic chemical. It is a colorless liquid with a sharp, sweet odor. Like Acetone, MEK is a ketone, and has many similarities. It dissolves many substances, and is used as a solvent for gums, resins, cellulose acetate and Nitrocellulose. MEK is listed as a Table II precursor under the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+
+F, Xi
+
+MEK is very volatile and flammable. MEK vapour is heavier than air, and spreads over the ground. Only work with MEK outside or in a well ventilated area. The known health effects to people from exposure to MEK are slight irritation of the nose, throat, skin, and eyes. There are no known cases of any humans dying from breathing MEK alone. Other than minor irritation, it's basically harmless.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-methylene-chloride.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Methylene chloride
+
+**Formula**
+
+$CH2Cl2$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Dichloromethane, DCM, Methylene dichloride, Solmethine, Narkotil, Solaesthin
+
+**Description**
+
+Methylene chloride is a solvent that is used for parlon, saran, and paint thinning etc. They are also used to solvent-bond plastic aerial shell halves.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Methylene chloride can easily be purchased from paint and hardward stores. It can not be made at home.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Methylene chloride also know as dichloromethane is the least toxic of the simple chlorohydrocarbons, but it is not without its health risks as its high volatility makes it an acute inhalational hazard. Dichloromethane is also metabolized by the body to carbon monoxide potentially leading to carbon monoxide poisoning. Prolonged skin contact can result in the dichloromethane dissolving some of the fatty tissues in skin, resulting in skin irritation or chemical burns. It may be carcinogenic, as it has been linked to cancer of the lungs, liver, and pancreas in laboratory animals. Dichloromethane is a mutagen and crosses the placenta, causing fetal toxicity in women who are exposed to it during pregnancy. In animal experiments it was fetotoxic at doses that were maternally toxic but no teratogenic effects were seen.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-naphthalene.md

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+## Naphtalene
+
+**Formula**
+
+$C10H8$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Black smoke
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Naphthalin(e), White tar, camphor tar, Albocarbon
+
+**Description**
+
+It is a white compound with a tar-like odour. It often comes as plate-like crystals. Melts at 80 deg.C. and is insoluble in water. Main pyrotechnical use is for production of black smokes (similar to anthracene). Used as an insecticide (therefore it can be found in moth balls).
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+
+May cause irritation. Toxic by inhalation or ingestion. Possible carcinogen.
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-nitric-acid.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Nitric acid
+
+**Formula**
+
+$HNO3$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Synthesis of nitrate compounds
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+TBD
+
+**Description**
+
+Nitric acid is not used in pyrotechnic compositions but it can be used to prepare a variety of useful nitrates from carbonates, hydroxides, oxides or free elements. It is used in the explosives industry in the preparation of a lot of commonly used explosives (eg TNT, RDX, PETN, nitrocellulose). Most high explosives have no use in fireworks, though nitrocellulose is used in some fireworks compositions as an acetone soluble binder.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+It is possible to prepare nitric acid in several ways. It can also be bought at some drug stores. It is sold at professional gardening suppliers and at welding shops (it is used to passivate stainless steel after welding). One way to prepare it is by distilling a mixture of sulfuric acid and sodium nitrate. This process is dangerous and requires some equipment. This method is probably too dangerous for the average amateur pyro. Another possible method is by precipitating barium sulfate from a barium nitrate solution by adding sulfuric acid. What remains is a nitric acid solution. It should be possible to prepare quite concentrated solutions by using concentrated sulfuric acid and a saturated (not hot!) barium nitrate solution. It is important that the sulfuric acid is added to the barium nitrate solution and not the other way around. The mixing of the liquids will produce heat and if the barium nitrate solution is added to the sulfuric acid it could cause sudden boiling and splatting. Therefore, add the sulfuric acid slowly to the barium nitrate while constantly stirring. Allow the mixture to cool from time to time if it gets too hot. A white precipitate of barium sulfate should form. The mixture is then filtered through a sintered glass filter to obtain clear solution of nitric acid. Another method would consist of equal amounts of sulfuric acid and potassium nitrate heated a retort. The retort is heated until the solution starts bubbling, and the nitric acid evaporates. The acid then condenses in the neck of the retort, and drips out the end into a separate flask that is submerged in chilled water. After the reaction is complete, the resulting nitric acid is around 80-95% pure. This process yields red fuming nitric acid, which you'll see fumes coming out of the flask when the lid is removed. A byproduct of this reaction is potassium hydrogen sulfate (KHSO4), which appears as a white crystalline mass at the bottom of the retort.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Nitric acid is corrosive. The fumes are dangerous to the lungs, eyes and skin. Skin will be stained yellow upon contact. Avoid all contact with both liquid and fumes. Wear eye and skin protection (lab apron, gloves, safety glasses, etc). In some reactions (especially those with metals) a brown gas will develop: nitrogen dioxide. It is very toxic, corrosive and will attack your lungs badly. Only work with nitric acid with adequate ventilation and proper protective clothing. Don't use any solutions more concentrated than 60%. Don't try to prepare high explosives at home and don't allow any organic material to contact nitric acid accidentially because that may result in the formation of dangerously explosive and/or sensitive materials.

chapters/99-1-chemical-nitrocellulose.md

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+## Nitrocellulose
+
+**Formula**
+
+[C6H7(NO3)3O5]n Nitrated cellulose, prepared from various natural fibers.
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Binder
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+Cellulose nitrate, Flash paper, Gun cotton
+
+**Description**
+
+Nitrocellulose is used as a binder in pyrotechnic compositions. It is also used in some items without any other oxidizers or fuels. In other fields of pyrotechnics than fireworks it is widely used as a propellant, sometimes mixed with nitroglycerin and other materials (so called double- or triple base propellants).
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Nitrocellulose is sold in gun shops to those with the proper licenses in some countries. Nitrocellulose is the main compound in smokeless gunpowder. Double and triple base powders seem to be most common though. A less nitrated but usable form of cellulose, called celluloid, is also used in some household items: ping-pong balls (see Nitrocellulose lacquer). This may be a source for small amounts. Celluloid is also used for film but that is getting a little scarce these days with digital cameras taking over the market. It is probably too expensive for pyro uses anyway. Finally, it is possible to make nitrocellulose at home. The procedure is too lengthy to describe well here, but it involves treating cellulose (preferably cotton or paper) with a mixture of sulfuric acid, nitric acid and water. The product is then washed extensively and stabilized. Properly stabilizing the product at home may be difficult and commercial nitrocellulose is preferred for that reason.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-orpiment.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+## Orpiment
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+
+**Description**
+
+Orpiment is a very poisonus and extremly carcinogen Arsenicsulfide with yellow to gold colour. The Alchemists tried to make gold from it in the 13 centry. It is used for colour efects in Pyrotechnics and smoke mix,
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-paraffin-oil.md

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+## Paraffin oil
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+
+**Description**
+
+Paraffin oil is sometimes used as an additive (about 1%) in colored fires to make pressing easier and to offer moisture protection e.g. in compositions containing large amounts of strontium nitrate. It also reduces the sensitivity of the composition.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-parlon.md

@@ -0,0 +1,34 @@
+## Parlon
+
+**Formula**
+
+$(C4H6Cl2)n$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Chlorine donor and binder
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Chlorinated rubber, chlorub, pergut
+
+**Description**
+
+Parlon is a acetone-soluble polymer that is used as a chlorine donor and binder. It is a good example of one of the new chemicals that has become available in the past few decades for use in compositions.
+
+Parlon is a registered trademark of the Hercules Powder Company, but-like "Kleenex" and "Band-Aid"-"Parlon" has come to be a generic name for any chlorinated rubber used to bind these stars, and to act as a chlorine donor (which enriches their color). Older brands of chlorinated rubber, such as Alloprene and Parlon, are no longer readily available, so what is typically supplied nowadays is Chlorub, the modern equivalent.  
+  
+Some Parlon comes as a powder which flows freely through a 40-mesh screen. Other varieties come with granules or small flakes which will not pass the same screen, comprising 10-12% of the total powder.  
+  
+These larger particles will soften in the star composition we are about to make once the acetone is added, so they may be left in the Parlon as it is weighed. Just remember that as you are mixing the star composition through the 40-mesh screen, these particles will not pass through the screen, and must be added back to the composition after it is screen-mixed.  
+  
+Alternatively, the larger particles may be removed from the Parlon with a 40-mesh screen and simply discarded. This makes the screen-mixing of the star composition a bit easier.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Parlon seems to be available from dedicated pyro suppliers only. An alternative is polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
+
+**Hazards**
+
+Parlon is not particularly dangerous.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-petroleum-jelly.md

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+## Petroleum jelly
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Paraffin jelly, mineral jelly, Vasoline/Vaseline, petrolatum, soft paraffin.
+
+**Description**
+
+A semi-solid mixture of hydrocarbons used mainly for Whistle rocket mix. Clear to white solid. Used to desensitize, waterproof and bind various compositions.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Vasoline or other petroleum jellys are found in most supermarkets or drug stores.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+May cause eye, skin or digestive irritation. Material presents a low health hazard in normal use.

chapters/99-1-chemical-polyvinyl-chloride.md

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+## Polyvinyl chloride
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$[C2H3Cl]n$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+Chlorine donor
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+PVC
+
+**Description**
+
+Like parlon and saran, PVC is a polymeric chlorine donor and fuel. It can be used in the form of a fine powder or as a solution in tetrahydrofuran (THF). It is sometimes used as a binder, but it is very brittle. Small amounts of plasticiser (dioctyl phtalate is common) may be added to improve the mechanical properties.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+As an alternative to the PVC powder available from chemical suppliers and dedicated pyro suppliers, PVC glue may also be used. It is usually sold in hardware stores and comes in two varieties: gelling or gap-filling and normal. Both are essentially a concentrated solution of PVC. I have no experience with the gelling variety, but the normal variety can succesfully be used in compositions. The gelling variety may be better suited for pyro purposes since it seems it contains more PVC. Another possibility is to use 'Sculpy' or 'Fimo' clay. These modelling clays consist of PVC with a large amount of plasticiser. The plasticiser may affect the color of a composition negatively, but reasonable results can still be obtained with it. It can simply be kneaded into a composition with some effort. This type of clay is usually hardened by heating it in an oven, but do not be tempted to do this with pyrotechnic mixtures as they may ignite.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+PVC itself is not particularly dangerous or toxic. Dioctyl phtalate is a suspected carcinogen however and THF is a very flamable and volatile liquid.
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-potassium-benzoate.md

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+## Potassium Benzoate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$KC7H5O2$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+
+**Description**
+
+Potassium benzoate is commonly used in whistle compositions. It is a white powder
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Potassium benzoate can be prepared from benzoic acid and potassium carbonate or hydroxide. Benzoic acid is not very soluble, but both potassium carbonate and hydroxide are. Dissolve 140.2g potassium carbonate or 56.1g potassium hydroxide in 250 ml water, and add 146g benzoic acid. Bring the mixture to a boil. If potassium carbonate is used, CO2 gas will evolve. Continue boiling untill all benzoic acid has dissolved, occasionally adding some water to make up for what has evaporated. When all benzoic acid has dissolved, continue boiling untill the first crystals of potassium benzoate are observed (ie the saturation point has been reached). Then allow the solution to cool to room temperature. Potassium benzoate will crystalise in needle shaped crystals. Filter, and rinse the crystals twice with ice-cold water. The crystals may be dried in an oven at 100 deg C.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Potassium benzoate is not particularly dangerous.

chapters/99-1-chemical-potassium-carbonate.md

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+## Potassium Carbonate
+
+**Formula**
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+
+**Description**
+
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-potassium-chlorate.md

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+## Potassium Chlorate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$KClO3$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+
+**Description**
+
+Potassium chlorate is a very common oxidiser in pyrotechnics, even though it has some treacherous properties and other oxidisers would sometimes be safer to use. Part of the reason of its popularity in commercial pyrotechnics is that it is cheap and easily available. The large scale production of this compound made the first quality colored fireworks possible, about a century ago. Potassium chlorate is a stronger oxidiser than potassium perchlorate. In some special cases it can be used safely instead of potassium perchlorate. The only use in display fireworks where Potassium Chlorate has no suitable alternative is as an oxidiser in the production of coloured smoke.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Potassium chlorate can be prepared at home. For this purpose, sodium chlorate is prepared first by electrolysis. It may also be obtained as a herbicide in some countries (France, for example) Then, by double decomposition with potassium chloride, potassium chlorate is prepared from this solution. The product is recrystallised, dried and powdered. Other means of manufacturing Potassium chlorate include boiling a mixture of calcium hypochlorite and potassium chloride, and filtering while boiling. The crystals will form upon cooling. This reaction also produces calcium chloride which can be scraped off the top of the solution.
+
+**Hazards**
+ 
+Potassium chlorate is toxic, and breathing protection should be worn when handling fine powder. Compositions made with potassium chlorate tend to be more sensitive than those based on nitrates and perchlorates and should therefore be handled accordingly. Potassium chlorate, or any chlorate for that matter, should never be used in combination with Ammonium perchlorate or most other Ammonium compounds.Additionally, it is widely considered incompatible with sulfur and sulfides. Mixtures containing both are very sensitive and may spontaneously ignite. In general, when using chlorates great care should be taken to avoid contamination of other compositions or tools. Also read the general safety page for more information on this problem.

chapters/99-1-chemical-potassium-chloride.md

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+## Potassium Chloride
+
+**Formula**
+ 
+$KCl$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+
+Potassium mono-chloride, chloride of potassium
+
+**Description**
+
+Potassium chloride is not directly used in pyrotechnics, but can be used to make other pyrotechnic chemicals such as Potassium perchlorate and Potassium chlorate. It is used to turn NaClO4 into KClO4 and NaCl (see Preparing perchlorates). it is also used to increase smoke density in very small amounts; mainly to potassium chlorate based smoke compositions.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+Potassium chloride is sometimes used as a water softener salt, instead of NaCl (check the label). It can be bought at hardware stores and grocery stores.
+
+**Hazards**
+
+KCl is not particularly toxic or dangerous.
+

chapters/99-1-chemical-potassium-dichromate.md

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+## Potassium Dichromate
+
+**Formula**
+
+$K2Cr2O7$
+
+**Pyrotechnics use**
+
+
+**Synonyms**
+ 
+
+**Description**
+
+Potassium dichromate is a bright orange crystalline subststance that is used to treat magnesium powder. The treatment makes magnesium more resistant to spontaneous reactions that could result in lower reliability of the mixture or spontaneous ignition.
+
+**Sources** 
+
+
+**Hazards**
+
+T+, N, O, Carc.
+
+Potassium dichromate is toxic, corrosive and a carcinogen. It should be handled with extreme care and proper protective clothing.
+